Reactive oxygen species damaged human serum albumin in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma

The role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) damaged human serum albumin (HSA) in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has been investigated in the present study. HSA was modified by hydroxyl radical. Modification occurred in HSA was characterized by physico-chemical techniques. ROS modified HSA was found to be highly immunogenic in rabbits. The binding characteristics of circulating antibodies in HCC patients against native and ROS-modified HSA were assessed. HCC patients (n = 31) were examined by direct binding ELISA and their results were compared with healthy age-matched controls (n = 22). High degree of specific binding by 77.4% of HCC sera towards ROS-HSA, in comparison to its native analogue (p < 0.05) was observed. Competitive ELISA reiterates the direct binding results. Gel retardation assay further substantiated the enhanced recognition of ROS-HSA by circulating antibodies in HCC patients. The increase in total serum protein carbonyl levels in the HCC patients was largely due to an increase in oxidized albumin. Purified HSA of HCC patients (HCC-HSA) contained higher levels of carbonyls than HSA of normal subjects (normal-HSA) (p < 0.01). HCC-HSA was conformationally altered, with more exposure of its hydrophobic regions. Collectively, the oxidation of plasma proteins, especially HSA, might enhance oxidative stress in HCC patients.

Measurement and significance of 3-nitrotyrosine in systemic lupus erythematosus

Nitration of free and protein associated tyrosine represents, in vivo, a mechanism that can severely compromise the cell function. The detection of 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) in pathological tissues is suggestive of the occurrence of nitrating pathways and has been identified as a marker of inflammation and a stable end product of increased reactive nitrogen intermediate production. Protein nitration occurs in many disease conditions including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In this study we show that the level of both free and protein bound 3-NT, which is produced by reactive nitrogen species (RNS)-dependent oxidative damage, is elevated in patients with SLE and that there is a possible role of RNS-modified epitopes in the aetiology of the disease. Commercially available poly L-tyrosine was exposed to nitrating species, inducing nitration in tyrosine residues. Immunoglobulin-G (IgG) purified on Protein-A-Sepharose matrix from 24 SLE patients was studied for their recognition of native and nitrated poly L-tyrosine by direct binding and competition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The formation of immune complex between SLE IgG and nitrated poly L-tyrosine was visualized by gel retardation assay. Free 3-NT in patients' sera was detected and quantitated by high performance liquid chromatography whereas protein-bound 3-NT was analysed by Western blotting and the concentration was calculated by sandwich ELISA. The concentration of free 3-NT was found to be 1.4 +/- 0.09 microm whereas the concentration of protein bound 3-NT was 96.52 +/- 21.12 microm nitrated bovine serum albumin equivalents/mg protein, which was significantly higher when compared with healthy controls. Elevated level of 3-NT was observed in SLE patients using two different techniques, when compared with healthy subjects confirms the overproduction of RNS in the pathogenesis of human SLE.

Candidaemia in a large teaching hospital: a clinical audit

BACKGROUND

Candidaemias are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. The British Society of Medical Mycology and Infectious Diseases Society of America recently published audit standards, to address the changing epidemiology of candidaemia and to improve outcomes.

AIM

To investigate the local epidemiology of candidaemia and the standard of care in a large teaching hospital.

DESIGN

Retrospective audit.

METHODS

Data were obtained for all candidaemia episodes over the 4-year period ending July 2004, from the medical and nursing notes, laboratory computer and patient administration system.

RESULTS

We identified 92 episodes in 90 patients. The main predisposing factors were being on an intensive care unit, having a central venous catheter, and (for neonates) prematurity. Central venous catheters were removed at a mean 1.8 days following candidaemia; 79% (37/47) were removed within 48 h (the audit standard). Identification and susceptibility tests were performed for 94.7% of isolates. All were susceptible to amphotericin B; 87% were susceptible to fluconazole. Antifungal treatment was started within 24 h of a positive blood culture in 84% of episodes. Initial antifungal therapy was appropriate in 95% (61/64) of treated cases. Most patients (81%) who survived or completed their intended course of treatment before death received at least 2 weeks treatment. However, only 45% of those transferred to other hospitals had accompanying guidance on the intended further duration of therapy. Thirty-day mortality was 41%. After adjustment for age, the presence of Candida-related complications was associated with an odds ratio for mortality of 6.5 (95% CI 1.2-36.5, p = 0.03).

DISCUSSION

Overall the audit standards set by the BSMM and IDSA were met, and discrepancies did not lead to a change in outcome. Improved intravenous catheter care, a more pro-active approach to searching for complications, and improvement in the inter-hospital transfer process, will assist in reducing morbidity and mortality.

Tumor lysis syndrome as a contributory factor to the development of reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy

INTRODUCTION

Reversible posterior leukoencephalopathy syndrome (RPLS) is a recently described clinical and radiological entity comprising headache, seizures, altered level of consciousness and visual disturbances in association with transient posterior cerebral white-matter abnormalities.

METHOD

We report a young woman with Burkitt's lymphoma who developed RPLS after combined chemotherapy administered during the tumor lysis syndrome.

RESULTS

The symptoms in this patient fitted well with those of RPLS; they included abrupt alterations in mental status, seizures, headache, visual changes and characteristic neuroradiological findings. She was given further combination chemotherapy without any neurological complications, at which time she had already recovered from both RPLS and tumor lysis syndrome.

CONCLUSION

Although many etiological factors have been reported in the development of RPLS, the underlying mechanism is not yet well understood. With prompt and appropriate management, RPLS is usually reversible, and chemotherapy can be continued after complete recovery from RPLS. We suggest that tumor lysis syndrome should be considered as a contributory factor to the development of RPLS in patients for whom treatment with combined chemotherapy for hematological malignancies is planned.

Bacillus spp. among hospitalized patients with haematological malignancies: clinical features, epidemics and outcomes

Between April 2000 and May 2005, 350 bacteraemic episodes occurred among patients treated in our haematology unit. Two hundred and twenty-eight of these episodes were caused by Gram-positive pathogens, most commonly coagulase-negative staphylococci and Staphylococcus aureus. One hundred and twenty-two episodes were due to Gram-negative pathogens, with a predominance of Escherichia coli, Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bacillus bacteraemias constituted 12 of these episodes occurring in 12 patients, and accounted for 3.4% of all bacteraemic episodes. Of the 12 strains evaluated, seven were Bacillus licheniformis, three were Bacillus cereus and two were Bacillus pumilus. Seven episodes presented with bloodstream infection, three with pneumonia, one with severe abdominal pain and deterioration of liver function, and one with a catheter-related bloodstream infection. B. licheniformis was isolated from five patients who had been hospitalized at the same time. This outbreak was related to non-sterile cotton wool used during skin disinfection. B. cereus and B. licheniformis isolates were susceptible to cefepime, carbapenems, aminoglycosides and vancomycin, but B. pumilus isolates were resistant to all antibiotics except for quinolones and vancomycin. Two deaths were observed. In conclusion, Bacillus spp. may cause serious infections, diagnostic and therapeutic dilemmas, and high morbidity and mortality in patients with haematological malignancies. Both B. cereus and B. licheniformis may be among the 'new' Gram-positive pathogens to cause serious infection in patients with neutropenia.

Opioid antagonists under heavy sedation or anaesthesia for opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Withdrawal (detoxification) is necessary prior to drug-free treatment. It may also represent the end point of long-term opioid replacement treatment such as methadone maintenance. The availability of managed withdrawal is essential to an effective treatment system.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of interventions involving the administration of opioid antagonists to induce opioid withdrawal with concomitant heavy sedation or anaesthesia, in terms of withdrawal signs and symptoms, completion of treatment and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Drugs and Alcohol Group register (October 2003), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, 2004), Medline (January 1966 to January 2005), Embase (January 1985 to January 2005), PsycINFO (1967 to January 2005), and Cinahl (1982 to December 2004) and reference lists of studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Controlled trials comparing antagonist-induced withdrawal under heavy sedation or anaesthesia with another form of treatment, or a different regime of anaesthesia-based antagonist-induced withdrawal.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer assessed studies for inclusion and undertook data extraction and assessed quality. Inclusion decisions and the overall process were confirmed by consultation between all three reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Six studies (five randomised controlled trials) involving 834 participants met the inclusion criteria for the review.Antagonist-induced withdrawal is more intense but less prolonged than withdrawal managed with reducing doses of methadone, and doses of naltrexone sufficient for blockade of opioid effects can be established significantly more quickly with antagonist-induced withdrawal than withdrawal managed with clonidine and symptomatic medications. The level of sedation does not affect the intensity and duration of withdrawal, although the duration of anaesthesia may influence withdrawal severity. There is a significantly greater risk of adverse events with heavy, compared to light, sedation (RR 3.21, 95% CI 1.13 to 9.12, P = 0.03) and probably also other forms of detoxification.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Heavy sedation compared to light sedation does not confer additional benefits in terms of less severe withdrawal or increased rates of commencement on naltrexone maintenance treatment. Given that the adverse events are potentially life-threatening, the value of antagonist-induced withdrawal under heavy sedation or anaesthesia is not supported. The high cost of anaesthesia-based approaches, both in monetary terms and use of scarce intensive care resources, suggest that this form of treatment should not be pursued.

Buprenorphine for the management of opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Managed withdrawal is a necessary step prior to drug-free treatment. It may also represent the end point of maintenance treatment.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of interventions involving the use of buprenorphine to manage opioid withdrawal, for withdrawal signs and symptoms, completion of withdrawal and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library, including the Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group trials register, Issue 3, 2005), MEDLINE (January 1966 to August 2005), EMBASE (January 1985 to August 2005), PsycINFO (1967 to August 2005), CINAHL(1982 to July 2005) and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Experimental interventions involved the use of buprenorphine to modify the signs and symptoms of withdrawal in participants who were primarily opioid dependent. Comparison interventions involved reducing doses of methadone, alpha2 adrenergic agonists, symptomatic medications or placebo, or different buprenorphine-based regimes.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer assessed studies for inclusion and methodological quality, and undertook data extraction. Inclusion decisions and the overall process was confirmed by consultation between all three reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Eighteen studies (14 randomised controlled trials), involving 1356 participants, were included. Ten studies compared buprenorphine with clonidine; four compared buprenorphine with methadone; one compared buprenorphine with oxazepam; three compared different rates of buprenorphine dose reduction; two compared different starting doses of buprenorphine. (Two studies included more than one comparison.)Relative to clonidine, buprenorphine is more effective in ameliorating the symptoms of withdrawal, patients treated with buprenorphine stay in treatment for longer, particularly in an outpatient setting (SMD 0.82, 95% CI 0.57 to 1.06, P < 0.001), and are more likely to complete withdrawal treatment (RR 1.73, 95% CI 1.21 to 2.47, P = 0.003). At the same time there is no significant difference in the incidence of adverse effects, but drop-out due to adverse effects may be more likely with clonidine. Severity of withdrawal is similar for withdrawal managed with buprenorphine and withdrawal managed with methadone, but withdrawal symptoms may resolve more quickly with buprenorphine. There is a trend towards completion of withdrawal treatment being more likely with buprenorphine relative to methadone (RR 1.30, 95% CI 0.97 to 1.73, P = 0.08).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Buprenorphine is more effective than clonidine for the management of opioid withdrawal. There appears to be no significant difference between buprenorphine and methadone in terms of completion of treatment, but withdrawal symptoms may resolve more quickly with buprenorphine.

A cost-effectiveness analysis of heroin detoxification methods in the Australian National Evaluation of Pharmacotherapies for Opioid Dependence (NEPOD)

This economic evaluation was part of the Australian National Evaluation of Pharmacotherapies for Opioid Dependence (NEPOD) project. Data from four trials of heroin detoxification methods, involving 365 participants, were pooled to enable a comprehensive comparison of the cost-effectiveness of five inpatient and outpatient detoxification methods. This study took the perspective of the treatment provider in assessing resource use and costs. Two short-term outcome measures were used-achievement of an initial 7-day period of abstinence, and entry into ongoing post-detoxification treatment. The mean costs of the various detoxification methods ranged widely, from AUD 491 dollars(buprenorphine-based outpatient); to AUD 605 dollars for conventional outpatient; AUD 1404 dollars for conventional inpatient; AUD 1990 dollars for rapid detoxification under sedation; and to AUD 2689 dollars for anaesthesia per episode. An incremental cost-effectiveness analysis was carried out using conventional outpatient detoxification as the base comparator. The buprenorphine-based outpatient detoxification method was found to be the most cost-effective method overall, and rapid opioid detoxification under sedation was the most cost-effective inpatient method.

Opioid antagonists with minimal sedation for opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Managed withdrawal is necessary prior to drug-free treatment. It may also represent the end point of long-term opioid replacement treatment.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of opioid antagonists in combination with minimal sedation to induce withdrawal, in terms of intensity of withdrawal, adverse effects and completion of treatment.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, 2005, which includes the Cochrane Drugs and Alcohol Group register), MEDLINE (January 1966 to August 2005), EMBASE (January 1985 to August 2005), PsycINFO (1967 to August 2005), and CINAHL (1982 to July 2005) and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Experimental interventions involved the use of opioid antagonists in combination with minimal sedation to manage withdrawal in opioid-dependent participants compared with other approaches or different opioid antagonist regime.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer assessed studies for inclusion and undertook data extraction and trial quality. Study authors were contacted for additional information.

MAIN RESULTS

Nine studies (5 randomised controlled trials), involving 775 participants, met the inclusion criteria for the review. Withdrawal induced by opioid antagonists in combination with an adrenergic agonist is more intense than withdrawal managed with clonidine or lofexidine alone, but the overall severity is less. Limited data showed that antagonist-induced withdrawal may be more severe when the last opioid used was methadone rather than heroin or another short-acting opioid. Delirium may occur following the first dose of opioid antagonist, particularly with higher doses (> 25mg naltrexone). The studies included suggest there is no significant difference in rates of completion of treatment for withdrawal induced by opioid antagonists, in combination with an adrenergic agonist, compared with adrenergic agonist alone.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The use of opioid antagonists combined with alpha2 adrenergic agonists is a feasible approach to the management of opioid withdrawal. However, it is unclear whether this approach reduces the duration of withdrawal or facilitates transfer to naltrexone treatment to a greater extent than withdrawal managed primarily with an adrenergic agonist.A high level of monitoring and support is desirable for several hours following administration of opioid antagonists because of the possibility of vomiting, diarrhoea and delirium. Further research is required to confirm the relative effectiveness of antagonist-induced regimes, as well as variables influencing the severity of withdrawal, adverse effects, the most effective antagonist-based treatment regime, and approaches that might increase retention in subsequent naltrexone maintenance treatment.

Physical and mental health problems in amphetamine users from metropolitan Adelaide, Australia

Phase I of this study was designed to inform the development of a range of responses to hazardous and harmful amphetamine use. Research techniques from Rapid Assessment Methodology (RAM) were utilized to collect data. A survey of current amphetamine users included the Short Form 36 (SF36) Health Status Questionnaire, for which South Australian population norms were published in 1995. This facilitated comparisons of the health of this sample of amphetamine users with that of the general population. The sample were found to have significantly poorer health than the general population. The self-reported prevalence of mental health problems in the sample was consistent with previous Australian research on amphetamine use. Approximately one-third of the sample reported that they had experienced symptoms of anxiety, depression, mood swings and aggressive outbursts prior to their use of amphetamines. Two-thirds of the sample reported symptoms of anxiety and depression since starting to use amphetamines, almost half reported mood swings and aggressive outbursts, and over a third reported panic attacks and paranoia. One of the most important findings was a strong association between mental and physical health problems and the severity of dependence on amphetamines. The implications of these results for interventions with amphetamine users are discussed.

Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Despite widespread use in many countries the evidence of tapered methadone's efficacy in managing opioid withdrawal has not been systematically evaluated.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effectiveness of tapered methadone compared with other detoxification treatments and placebo in managing opioid withdrawal on completion of detoxification and relapse rate.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (The Cochrane Library Issue 1, 2005), MEDLINE (January 1966 to December 2004), EMBASE (January 1988 to December 2004), PsycINFO (January 1985 to December 2004), and reference lists of articles. We also contacted manufacturers and researchers in the field.

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials which focus on the use of tapered methadone versus all other pharmacological detoxification treatments or placebo for the treatment of opiate withdrawal.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers assessed the included studies. Any doubt about how to rate the studies were resolved by discussion with a third reviewer. Study quality was assessed according to the criteria indicated in Cochrane Reviews Handbook 4.2. (Alderson 2004)

MAIN RESULTS

Sixteen trials involving 1187 people were included. Comparing methadone versus any other pharmacological treatment we observed no clinical difference between the two treatments in terms of completion of treatment, relative risk (RR) 1.12; 95% CI 0.94 to 1.34 and results at follow-up RR 1.17; 95% CI 0.72 to 1.92. It was impossible to pool data for the other outcomes but the results of the studies did not show significant differences between the considered treatments. These results were confirmed also when we considered the single comparisons: methadone with: adrenergic agonists (11 studies), other opioid agonists (four studies), chlordiazepoxide (study). Comparing methadone with placebo (one study) more severe withdrawal and more drop outs were found in the placebo group. The results indicate that the medications used in the included studies are similar in terms of overall effectiveness, although symptoms experienced by participants differed according to the medication used and the program adopted.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Data from literature are hardly comparable; programs vary widely with regard to duration, design and treatment objectives, impairing the application of meta-analysis. The studies included in this review confirm that slow tapering with temporary substitution of long acting opioids, accompanied by medical supervision and ancillary medications can reduce withdrawal severity. Nevertheless the majority of patients relapsed to heroin use.

Enhanced recognition of hydroxyl radical modified plasmid DNA by circulating cancer antibodies

Reactive oxygen species have been implicated in various human diseases which are also responsible for the elimination of invading pathogens. In disease state and inflammatory responses, the excess of these radicals damage cellular macromolecules. DNA is susceptible to attacks by OH-induced damage. Oxidative DNA damage is an important factor in mutagenesis and carcinogenesis. In the present study, purified plasmid Bluescript DNA was modified by hydroxyl radical. Modifications incurred in DNA were characterized by physico-chemical techniques. Sera from patients of cancer were studied for their binding to native and hydroxyl radical modified plasmid DNA. Direct binding ELISA and competition binding results indicated that autoantibodies in cancer showed higher recognition to ROS-plasmid DNA as compared to the native form. Retarded mobility of the immune complex formation between IgG isolated from cancer sera using native and ROS-plasmid DNA as antigens reiterated preferential recognition of modified plasmid DNA by cancer autoantibodies. Therefore, it can be concluded that circulating autoantibodies in cancer sera bind preferentially to ROS-plasmid DNA as compared to native polymer. The data presented in the present communication suggest a role of ROS in the etiology of cancer.

Buprenorphine for the management of opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Managed withdrawal (detoxification) is a necessary step prior to drug-free treatment. It may also represent the end point of long-term opioid replacement treatment such as methadone maintenance. The availability of managed withdrawal is essential to an effective treatment system.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of interventions involving the use of buprenorphine to manage opioid withdrawal, in terms of withdrawal signs and symptoms, completion of withdrawal and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Multiple electronic databases (including Medline, Embase, PsycINFO, Australian Medical Index, Cochrane Clinical Trials Register) were systematically searched to October 2003. Reference lists of retrieved studies, reviews and conference abstracts were handsearched.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Controlled trials comparing buprenorphine with reducing doses of methadone, alpha2 adrenergic agonists, symptomatic medications or placebo, or comparing different buprenorphine-based regimes, to modify the signs and symptoms of withdrawal in participants who were primarily opioid dependent.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer assessed studies for inclusion and undertook data extraction. Inclusion decisions and the overall process were confirmed by consultation between all three reviewers. Included studies were assessed for methodological quality. Meta-analysis was undertaken where possible, with sensitivity analyses used to assess the impact of methodological quality.

MAIN RESULTS

Thirteen studies (10 RCTs), involving 744 participants, met the criteria for inclusion in the review. Seven studies compared buprenorphine with clonidine; 3 compared buprenorphine with methadone; 1 compared buprenorphine with oxazepam; 2 compared rapid and slow rates of tapering buprenorphine dose; 1 compared 3 different starting doses of buprenorphine. For groups treated with buprenorphine, withdrawal severity was less than that in groups treated with clonidine; peak severity was similar to those treated with methadone, but withdrawal symptoms may resolve more quickly with buprenorphine. Withdrawal is probably more severe when doses are tapered rapidly following a period of maintenance treatment. Buprenorphine is associated with fewer adverse effects than clonidine, and completion of withdrawal is significantly more likely with buprenorphine (Relative Risk 1.35, 95% confidence interval 1.13, 1.62). In the two available studies, there was no statistically significant difference in rates of completion of withdrawal for buprenorphine compared to methadone in reducing doses. Completion of withdrawal following buprenorphine maintenance treatment may be more likely when doses are reduced gradually.

REVIEWERS' CONCLUSIONS

Buprenorphine is more effective than clonidine for the management of opioid withdrawal. There appears to be no significant difference between buprenorphine and methadone in terms of completion of withdrawal, but withdrawal symptoms may resolve more quickly with buprenorphine. Many aspects of treatment protocol and relative effectiveness need to be investigated further in order to determine the most effective way of using buprenorphine to manage opioid withdrawal.

Alpha2 adrenergic agonists for the management of opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Withdrawal (detoxification) is necessary prior to drug-free treatment. It may also represent the end point of long-term treatment such as methadone maintenance. The availability of managed withdrawal is essential to an effective treatment system.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effectiveness of interventions involving the use of alpha2 adrenergic agonists (clonidine, lofexidine, guanfacine) to manage opioid withdrawal in terms of withdrawal signs and symptoms, completion of withdrawal and adverse effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Multiple electronic databases (including MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Australian Medical Index, Cochrane Clinical Trials Register) were systematically searched. Reference lists of retrieved studies, reviews and conference abstracts were handsearched and relevant pharmaceutical companies contacted.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Controlled trials comparing alpha2 adrenergic agonists with reducing doses of methadone, symptomatic medications or placebo, or comparing different alpha2 adrenergic agonists to modify the signs and symptoms of withdrawal in participants who were primarily opioid dependent.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer assessed studies for inclusion and undertook data extraction. Inclusion decisions and the overall process were confirmed by consultation between all four reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty-two studies, involving 1709 participants, were included. Eighteen were randomised controlled trials; for the remaining studies allocation was by participant choice in two, one used alternate allocation and in one the method of allocation was unclear. Twelve studies compared a treatment regime based on an alpha2 adrenergic agonist with one based on reducing doses of methadone. Diversity in study design, assessment and reporting of outcomes limited the extent of quantitative analysis. For the comparison of alpha2 adrenergic agonist regimes with reducing doses of methadone, there were insufficient data for statistical analysis, but withdrawal intensity appears similar to, or marginally greater with alpha2 adrenergic agonists, while signs and symptoms of withdrawal occur and resolve earlier in treatment. Participants stay in treatment longer with methadone. No significant difference was detected in rates of completion of withdrawal with adrenergic agonists compared to reducing doses of methadone, or clonidine compared to lofexidine. Clonidine is associated with more adverse effects (low blood pressure, dizziness, dry mouth, lack of energy) than reducing doses of methadone. Lofexidine does not reduce blood pressure to the same extent as clonidine, but is otherwise similar to clonidine.

REVIEWERS' CONCLUSIONS

No significant difference in efficacy was detected for treatment regimes based on the alpha2 adrenergic agonists clonidine and lofexidine, and those based on reducing doses of methadone over a period of around 10 days, for the management of withdrawal from heroin or methadone. Participants stay in treatment longer with methadone regimes and experience less adverse effects. The lower incidence of hypotension makes lofexidine more suited to use in outpatient settings than clonidine. There are insufficient data available to support a conclusion on the efficacy of other alpha2 adrenergic agonists.

Methadone at tapered doses for the management of opioid withdrawal

BACKGROUND

Despite widespread use in many countries of tapered methadone for detoxification from opiate dependence, the evidence of efficacy to prevent relapse and promote lifestyle change has not been systematically evaluated.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether tapered methadone is effective to manage opioids withdrawal.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched: the Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (Issue 1, 2000), MEDLINE (OVID 1966-2000), EMBASE (1980-2000); scan of reference list of relevant articles; personal communication; conference abstracts; unpublished trials from pharmaceutical industry; Internet (NIDA, Clinical Trials.org, BMJ).

SELECTION CRITERIA

All randomised controlled trials focused on tapered methadone (length of treatment max 30 days) versus all other pharmacological detoxification treatments, placebo and different modalities of methadone detoxification programs for the treatment of opiate withdrawal.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

One reviewer (LA) assessed studies for inclusion and undertook data extraction. Inclusion decisions and the overall process were confirmed by consultation between reviewers. Where possible analysis was carried out according to the "intention to treat" principles.

MAIN RESULTS

20 studies were included in the review, with 1357 participants. 10 studies compared methadone with adrenergic agonists, 7 studies compared different modalities of methadone detoxification, 2 studies compared methadone with other opioid agonists, 1 study with chlordiazepoxide, 1 with placebo. The conclusions of the 10 studies that compared methadone with adrenergic agonists showed no substantial clinical difference of the two treatments in terms of retention in treatment, degree of discomfort and detoxification success rates. The conclusions of the 6 studies that compare different methadone reduction schedules, showed that different types of methadone withdrawal schedule produce different responses in terms of withdrawal symptoms and severity of them. Regarding the studies that compare methadone with other opioid agonists, methadyl acetate performed similarly to methadone on most process and outcome measures, while methadone reduced severity of withdrawal and had fewer drop-outs than did propoxyphene. Using chlordiazepoxide vs methadone, the results suggest that the two drugs had similar results in terms of overall effectiveness. Comparing methadone with placebo more severe withdrawal and more drop outs were founded in the placebo group. The results indicate that tapered methadone and other medications used in the included studies are effective in the treatment of the heroin withdrawal syndrome, although symptoms experienced by subjects differed according to the medication used and the program adopted. It seems that regardless of which medication is selected for heroin detoxification, the rates of subsequent heroin abstinence are about equal. This suggests that the medications are similar in terms of overall effectiveness. Improvements were achieved when other services such as counseling and other supporting services were offered contemporaneously with detoxification.

REVIEWERS' CONCLUSIONS

Data from literature are hardly comparable; programs vary widely with regard to duration, design and treatment objectives, impairing the application of meta-analysis. Results of many outcomes could not be summarised because they were presented either in graphical form or provided only statistical tests and p-values. For most studies standard deviation for continuous variables were not provided. The studies included in this review confirm that slow tapering with temporary substitution of long acting opioids, accompanied by medical supervision and ancillary medications can reduce withdrawal severity. Nevertheless the majority of patients relapsed to heroin use. However this cannot be considered a goal for a detoxification as heroin dependence is a chronic, relapsing disorder and the goal of detoxification should be to remove or reduce dependence on heroin in a controlled and human fashion and not a treatment for heroin dependence.

Substitution treatment of injecting opioid users for prevention of HIV infection

BACKGROUND

Injecting drug users are vulnerable to infection with HIV and other blood borne viruses as a result of collective use of injecting equipment as well as sexual behaviour.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effect of oral substitution treatment for opioid dependent injecting drug users on rates of HIV infections, and high risk behaviours.

SEARCH STRATEGY

Multiple electronic databases were searched. Reference lists of retrieved studies, reviews and conference abstracts were handsearched.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Studies were required to consider the incidence of risk behaviours, or the incidence of HIV infection related to substitution treatment of opioid dependence. All types of original studies were considered.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Each potentially relevant study was independently assessed by two reviewers. For studies that met the inclusion criteria, key information was extracted by one reviewer and confirmed by consultation between all four reviewers.

MAIN RESULTS

Twenty-eight studies, involving 7900 participants, were included. The majority were not randomised controlled studies. Issues of confounding and bias are discussed. The studies varied in several aspects limiting the extent of quantitative analysis.

REVIEWERS' CONCLUSIONS

Oral substitution treatment for opioid-dependent injecting drug users is associated with statistically significant reductions in illicit opioid use, injecting use and sharing of injecting equipment. It is also associated with reductions in the proportion of injecting drug users reporting multiple sex partners or exchanges of sex for drugs or money, but has little effect on condom use. It appears that the reductions in risk behaviours related to drug use do translate into reductions in cases of HIV infection. The lack of data from randomised controlled studies limits the strength of the evidence presented in this review. However, these findings add to the stronger evidence of effectiveness of substitution treatment on drug use, and treatment retention outcomes shown by other systematic reviews. On this basis, the provision of substitution treatment for opioid dependence in countries with emerging HIV and injecting drug use problems as well as in countries with established populations of injecting drug users should be supported.