Carotenoids microencapsulation by spray drying method and supercritical micronization

The application of dietary fibre as microcapsule wall material in food processing

In the food industry, functional ingredients derived from active substances of natural sources and microbiological resources are gaining acceptance and demand due to their beneficial health properties. However, the inherent instability of these constituents poses a challenge in utilizing their functional properties. Microencapsulation with dietary fibre as wall material technology offers a promising solution, providing convenient manipulability and effective safeguarding of encapsulated substances. This paper presents a comprehensive overview of the current state of research on dietary fibre-based microcapsules in food processing. It examines their functional attributes, the preparation technology, and their applications within the food industry. Furthermore, the constraints associated with industrial production are discussed, as well as potential future developments. This article offers researchers a reference point and a theoretical basis for the selection of innovative food ingredients, the high-value utilisation of dietary fibre, and the design of conservation strategies for functional substances in food production.

Effect of microencapsulated canthaxanthin and apo-ester on egg yolk color and antioxidant capacity in laying hens

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of common canthaxanthin (CC) or microencapsulated canthaxanthin (MC) combined with apo-ester (AE) on productive performance, egg yolk color and antioxidant capacity in laying hens. A total of 270 Hyline Brown laying hens at 56 wk of age were allocated to 3 groups with 6 replicates, and fed a wheat-soybean meal basal diet or the same diet supplemented with CC+AE or MC+AE at 5 mg/kg feed for each supplement. The productive performance was not affected by dietary treatments. The 2 test groups had higher (P < 0.05) yolk color score in fresh eggs than the control group, but the yolk color score of CC+AE group significantly declined (P < 0.05) with time, and a slight decline was also observed in the MC+AE group at 36 d. The MC+AE group had higher (P < 0.05) yolk color score of fried and boiled eggs than the other 2 groups. Higher (P < 0.05) feed canthaxanthin concentration was found in the MC+AE group at the end of experiment, which also had higher yolk canthaxanthin concentration in fresh eggs at 24 and 36 d as well as in fried, boiled and stored (4°C and 25°C) eggs. The 2 test groups had higher (P < 0.05) total antioxidant capacity in serum than the control group, and lower (P < 0.05) MDA content was observed in the MC+AE group. The mRNA level of cluster determinant 36 in jejunum was increased by the 2 test groups, and the same increase was also found in liver only in the MC+AE group. In conclusion, MC was more efficient in promoting yolk color and antioxidant capacity than CC when combined with AE.

Recent advances in microalgae encapsulation techniques for biomedical applications

Microalgae are microorganisms that are rich in bioactive compounds, including pigments, proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. These compounds can be utilized for a number of biomedical purposes, including drug delivery, wound healing, and tissue engineering. Nevertheless, encapsulating microalgae cells and microalgae bioactive metabolites is vital to protect them and prevent premature degradation. This also enables the development of intelligent controlled release strategies for the bioactive compounds. This review outlines the most employed encapsulation techniques for microalgae, with a particular focus on their biomedical applications. These include ionic gelation, oil-in-water emulsions, and spray drying. Such techniques have been widely explored, due to their ability to protect sensitive compounds from degradation, enhance their stability, extend their shelf life, mask undesirable tastes or odours, control the release of bioactive compounds, and enable targeted delivery to specific sites within the body or environment. Moreover, a patent landscape analysis is also provided, allowing an overview of the microalgae encapsulation technology development applied to a variety of fields, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, food, and agriculture.

Valorisation of Agri-Food Waste for Bioactive Compounds: Recent Trends and Future Sustainable Challenges

Worldwide, a massive amount of agriculture and food waste is a major threat to the environment, the economy and public health. However, these wastes are important sources of phytochemicals (bioactive), such as polyphenols, carotenoids, carnitine, coenzymes, essential oils and tocopherols, which have antioxidant, antimicrobial and anticarcinogenic properties. Hence, it represents a promising opportunity for the food, agriculture, cosmetics, textiles, energy and pharmaceutical industries to develop cost effective strategies. The value of agri-food wastes has been extracted from various valuable bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, dietary fibre, proteins, lipids, vitamins, carotenoids, organic acids, essential oils and minerals, some of which are found in greater quantities in the discarded parts than in the parts accepted by the market used for different industrial sectors. The value of agri-food wastes and by-products could assure food security, maintain sustainability, efficiently reduce environmental pollution and provide an opportunity to earn additional income for industries. Furthermore, sustainable extraction methodologies like ultrasound-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pulse electric field-assisted extraction, ultrasound microwave-assisted extraction and high hydrostatic pressure extraction are extensively used for the isolation, purification and recovery of various bioactive compounds from agri-food waste, according to a circular economy and sustainable approach. This review also includes some of the critical and sustainable challenges in the valorisation of agri-food wastes and explores innovative eco-friendly methods for extracting bioactive compounds from agri-food wastes, particularly for food applications. The highlights of this review are providing information on the valorisation techniques used for the extraction and recovery of different bioactive compounds from agricultural food wastes, innovative and promising approaches. Additionally, the potential use of these products presents an affordable alternative towards a circular economy and, consequently, sustainability. In this context, the encapsulation process considers the integral and sustainable use of agricultural food waste for bioactive compounds that enhance the properties and quality of functional food.

Comprehensive Update on Carotenoid Colorants from Plants and Microalgae: Challenges and Advances from Research Laboratories to Industry

The substitution of synthetic food dyes with natural colorants continues to be assiduously pursued. The current list of natural carotenoid colorants consists of plant-derived annatto (bixin and norbixin), paprika (capsanthin and capsorubin), saffron (crocin), tomato and gac fruit lycopene, marigold lutein, and red palm oil (α- and β-carotene), along with microalgal Dunaliella β-carotene and Haematococcus astaxanthin and fungal Blakeslea trispora β-carotene and lycopene. Potential microalgal sources are being sought, especially in relation to lutein, for which commercial plant sources are lacking. Research efforts, manifested in numerous reviews and research papers published in the last decade, have been directed to green extraction, microencapsulation/nanoencapsulation, and valorization of processing by-products. Extraction is shifting from conventional extraction with organic solvents to supercritical CO2 extraction and different types of assisted extraction. Initially intended for the stabilization of the highly degradable carotenoids, additional benefits of encapsulation have been demonstrated, especially the improvement of carotenoid solubility and bioavailability. Instead of searching for new higher plant sources, enormous effort has been directed to the utilization of by-products of the fruit and vegetable processing industry, with the application of biorefinery and circular economy concepts. Amidst enormous research activities, however, the gap between research and industrial implementation remains wide.

Alginate Gel-Based Carriers for Encapsulation of Carotenoids: On Challenges and Applications

Sodium alginate is one of the most interesting and the most investigated and applied biopolymers due to its advantageous properties. Among them, easy, simple, mild, rapid, non-toxic gelation by divalent cations is the most important. In addition, it is abundant, low-cost, eco-friendly, bio-compatible, bio-adhesive, biodegradable, stable, etc. All those properties were systematically considered within this review. Carotenoids are functional components in the human diet with plenty of health benefits. However, their sensitivity to environmental and process stresses, chemical instability, easy oxidation, low water solubility, and bioavailability limit their food and pharmaceutical applications. Encapsulation may help in overcoming these limitations and within this review, the role of alginate-based encapsulation systems in improving the stability and bioavailability of carotenoids is explored. It may be concluded that all alginate-based systems increase carotenoid stability, but only those of micro- and nano-size, as well as emulsion-based, may improve their low bioaccessibility. In addition, the incorporation of other biopolymers may further improve encapsulation system properties. Furthermore, the main techniques for evaluating the encapsulation are briefly considered. This review critically and profoundly explains the role of alginates in improving the encapsulation process of carotenoids, suggesting the best alternatives for those systems. Moreover, it provides a comprehensive cover of recent advances in this field.

Comparative Study of Cinnamon and Paprika Oleoresins Encapsulated by Spray Chilling and Particles from Gas Saturated Solutions Techniques: Evaluation of Physical Characteristics and Oleoresins Release in Food Simulated Media

In this study, cinnamon and paprika oleoresins were encapsulated by two technologies, respectively, spray chilling and particles from gas saturated solutions. Both technologies used palm oil as wall materials. The physical characteristics of the microparticles were compared as well as the oleoresins release behavior in high- and low-fat simulated food media. The spray chilling microparticles had an average diameter of 143.7 ± 1.5 µm, spherical shape, smooth surface, and passable flow property. In contrast, microparticles obtained by particles from gas saturated solutions (PGSS) showed an average diameter of 105.7 ± 0.6 µm, irregular shape, porous surface, poor flow property but higher encapsulation efficiency. In evaluating the compounds released in a simulated food medium, the spray chilling particles delivered 30.7%, while PGSS reached 23.1% after 1 h. Both microparticles well fitted the Kosmeyer-Peppas (R2 = 0.98 and 0.96 for spray chilling and PGSS) and Peppas-Sahlin models (R2 = 0.98 and 0.97 for spray chilling and PGSS). However, spray chilling microparticles showed a diffusion mechanism, while for PGSS ones erosion was the main mechanism. Despite the different physical characteristics, both microparticles proved to be possible facilitators in delivering oleoresins in food products.

Encapsulating biocontrol bacteria with starch as a safe and edible biopolymer to alleviate plant diseases: A review

Healthy foods with few artificial additives are in high demand among consumers. Preserving conventional pesticides, frequently used as chemicals to control phytopathogens, is challenging. Therefore, we proposed an innovative approach to protect agricultural products in this review. Biocontrol bacteria are safe alternatives with low stability and low efficiency in the free-form formulation. The encapsulation technique for covering active compounds (e.g., antimicrobials) represents a more efficient protection technology because encapsulation causes the controlled release of bioactive materials and reduces the application doses. Of the biopolymers able to form a capsule, starch exhibits several advantages, such as its ready availability, cost-effectively, edible, colorless, and tasteless. Nevertheless, the poor mechanical properties of starch can be improved with other edible biopolymers. In addition, applying formulations incorporated with more than one antimicrobial material offers synergistic effects. This review presented the starch-based capsules used to enclose antimicrobial agents as effective tools against phytopathogens.

Chemistry, Occurrence, Properties, Applications, and Encapsulation of Carotenoids-A Review

Carotenoids are natural lipophilic pigments and antioxidants that are present in many fruits and vegetables. The consumption of carotenoids is correlated with positive health effects and a decreased risk of several chronic diseases. Provitamin A carotenoids (β-carotene, α-carotene, γ-carotene, and β-cryptoxanthin) are essential for the development and maintenance of sight. β-carotene, α-carotene, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and lycopene have high antioxidant activity and promote free radical scavenging, which helps protect against chronic diseases. However, carotenoids are chemically unstable and prone to oxidation in the presence of light, heat, oxygen, acids, and metal ions. The use of carotenoids in the food industry is limited due to their poor solubility in water, bioavailability and quick release. Encapsulation techniques, such as microencapsulation, nanoencapsulation and supercritical encapsulation, are used to overcome these problems. The objective of this paper is to describe the characteristics and potential health benefits of carotenoids and advances in encapsulation techniques for protecting and enhancing their solubility or bioavailability.

Optimization of spray drying process parameters for the food bioactive ingredients

Spray drying (SD) is one of the most important thermal processes used to produce different powders and encapsulated materials. During this process, quality degradation might happen. The main objective of applying optimization methods in SD processes is maximizing the final nutritional quality of the product besides sensory attributes. Optimization regarding economic issues might be also performed. Applying optimization approaches in line with mathematical models to predict product changes during thermal processes such as SD can be a promising method to enhance the quality of final products. In this review, the application of the response surface methodology (RSM), as the most widely used approach, is introduced along with other optimization techniques such as factorial, Taguchi, and some artificial intelligence-based methods like artificial neural networks (ANN), genetic algorithms (GA), Fuzzy logic, and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS). Also, probabilistic methods such as Monte Carlo are briefly introduced. Some recent case studies regarding the implementation of these methods in SD processes are also exemplified and discussed.

Microencapsulation for Food Applications: A Review

Food products contain various active ingredients, such as flavors, nutrients, unsaturated fatty acids, color, probiotics, etc., that require protection during food processing and storage to preserve their quality and shelf life. This review provides an overview of standard microencapsulation technologies, processes, materials, industrial examples, reasons for market success, a summary of recent applications, and the challenges in the food industry, categorized by active food ingredients: flavors, polyunsaturated fatty acids, probiotics, antioxidants, colors, vitamins, and others. We also provide a comprehensive analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of the most common microencapsulation technologies in the food industry such as spray drying, coacervation, extrusion, and spray cooling. This review ends with future perspectives on microencapsulation for food applications.

Biocolorants in food: Sources, extraction, applications and future prospects

Color of a food is one of the major factors influencing its acceptance by consumers. At presently synthetic dyes are the most commonly used food colorant in food industry by providing more esthetically appearance and as a means to quality control. However, the growing concern about health and environmental due to associated toxicity with synthetic food colorants has accelerated the global efforts to replace them with safer and healthy food colorants obtained from natural resources (plants, microorganisms, and animals). Further, many of these biocolorants not only provide myriad of colors to the food but also exert biological properties, thus they can be used as nutraceuticals in foods and beverages. In order to understand the importance of nature-derived pigments as food colorants, this review provides a thorough discussion on the natural origin of food colorants. Following this, different extraction methods for isolating biocolorants from plants and microbes were also discussed. Many of these biocolorants not only provide color, but also have many health promoting properties, for this reason their physicochemical and biological properties were also reviewed. Finally, current trends on the use of biocolorants in foods, and the challenges faced by the biocolorants in their effective utilization by food industry and possible solutions to these challenges were discussed.

A protein- and fiber-rich diet with astaxanthin alleviates high-fat diet-induced obesity in beagles

Background and aims

Overweight or obesity is one of the most prevalent health burdens in companion pets and predisposes subjects to multiple comorbidities and reduced longevity. Dietary management and sufficient exercise are effective options for weight loss but challenged by modern lifestyle and calorie control-triggered malnutrition. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a formulated obesity control diet characterized by protein- and fiber-rich diet and supplemented with astaxanthin. We systemically evaluated global influences of the designed weight-loss diet on metabolic homeostasis in an obese beagle model.

Materials and methods

Beagles were induced for obesity by a 24-week HFD treatment and then included into weight-loss programs. Briefly, obese beagles were randomly assigned to two groups that were fed with a formulated weight-loss diet or control diet, respectively. Body weight and body condition scoring (BCS) were analyzed biweekly. Computed tomography (CT), nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurements, and blood and adipose tissue biopsies were collected at 0 and 8 weeks. Plasma lipids and adipocyte size were also measured after 8 weeks of weight-loss diet feeding. The global influence of the formulated diet on the whole spectrum of gene panels were examined by adipose RNA assays.

Results

Twenty-four weeks of continuous HFD feeding significantly induced obesity in beagles, as evidenced by increased body weight, BCS, abdominal fat mass, and serum lipid levels. The obese and metabolic condition of the modeled canine were effectively improved by an 8-week weight-loss diet administration. Importantly, we did not observe any side effects during the weight loss duration. Transcriptional analysis of adipose tissues further supported that a weight-loss diet significantly increased energy metabolism-related pathways and decreased lipid synthesis-related pathways.

Conclusion

The prescribed weight-loss diet exhibited profound benefits in canine weight management with well safety and palatability. These findings support effective strategies of nutritional management and supplementation approaches for weight control in companion animals.

Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds for Food and Agricultural Applications

This review presents an updated scenario of findings and evolutions of encapsulation of bioactive compounds for food and agricultural applications. Many polymers have been reported as encapsulated agents, such as sodium alginate, gum Arabic, chitosan, cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose, pectin, Shellac, xanthan gum, zein, pullulan, maltodextrin, whey protein, galactomannan, modified starch, polycaprolactone, and sodium caseinate. The main encapsulation methods investigated in the study include both physical and chemical ones, such as freeze-drying, spray-drying, extrusion, coacervation, complexation, and supercritical anti-solvent drying. Consequently, in the food area, bioactive peptides, vitamins, essential oils, caffeine, plant extracts, fatty acids, flavonoids, carotenoids, and terpenes are the main compounds encapsulated. In the agricultural area, essential oils, lipids, phytotoxins, medicines, vaccines, hemoglobin, and microbial metabolites are the main compounds encapsulated. Most scientific investigations have one or more objectives, such as to improve the stability of formulated systems, increase the release time, retain and protect active properties, reduce lipid oxidation, maintain organoleptic properties, and present bioactivities even in extreme thermal, radiation, and pH conditions. Considering the increasing worldwide interest for biomolecules in modern and sustainable agriculture, encapsulation can be efficient for the formulation of biofungicides, biopesticides, bioherbicides, and biofertilizers. With this review, it is inferred that the current scenario indicates evolutions in the production methods by increasing the scales and the techno-economic feasibilities. The Technology Readiness Level (TRL) for most of the encapsulation methods is going beyond TRL 6, in which the knowledge gathered allows for having a functional prototype or a representative model of the encapsulation technologies presented in this review.

Capsanthin from Capsicum annum fruits exerts anti-glaucoma, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory activity, and corneal pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression in a benzalkonium chloride-induced rat dry eye model

Dry eye disease (DED) is a complex ocular surface inflammatory disease. Its occurrence varies widely over the world, ranging from 5% to 34%. The use of preservatives, specifically benzalkonium chloride, in the ocular drops worsens the DED conditions. Furthermore, the Covid-19 pandemic increased screen time and the use of face masks and shields. As a result, the number of people suffering from dry eye disease (DED) has increased significantly in recent years. The main objective of our study is to find a solution to manage the dry eye disease (DED) preferably from natural source without any adverse events. In this study, the beneficial effects of capsanthin from Capsicum annum (CCA) were evaluated on benzalkonium chloride (BAC)-induced dry eye disease (DED) in Albino Wistar rats. Oral supplementation of CCA resulted in a statistically significant decrease in intraocular pressure (IOP) (p < .0001), increase in tear break-up time (TBUT) (p < .01), decline in Schirmer test results (p < .01), and decrease in corneal surface inflammation (p < .01). Capsanthin ameliorated in reducing oxidative stress by increasing serum antioxidant levels such as glutathione peroxidase (GPX), nitric oxide (NO), and lactoferrin (LTF) and inhibiting matrix metalloproteinases 2 and 9 (MMP2 and MMP9) (p < .0001). Capsanthin treatment significantly inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukins (IL-2, IL-4, IL-6), and pro-inflammatory mediator, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9). Furthermore, the lacrimal gland expressed vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM-1), and prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2) was suppressed by CCA treatment. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Benzalkonium chloride (BAC), a preservative widely used in the topical ocular drug delivery system (ODDS), causes undesirable effects such as dry eye disease as well as ameliorating intraocular pressure leading to optical nerve damage and irreversible vision loss. Capsanthin from Capsicum annum (CCA) can be used to treat symptoms related to dry eye disease such as inflammation, eye irritation, visual disturbance, ocular discomfort with potential damage to the ocular surface. The CCA may be beneficial in the treatment of glaucoma, an elevated intraocular pressure. Capsanthin from C. annum can be useful in managing DED by increasing tear break-up time (TBUT), declining in Schirmer test results and decreasing in corneal surface inflammation.

Technologies for Solubility, Dissolution and Permeation Enhancement of Natural Compounds

The current review is based on the advancements in the field of natural therapeutic agents which could be utilized for a variety of biomedical applications and against various diseases and ailments. In addition, several obstacles have to be circumvented to achieve the desired therapeutic effectiveness, among which limited dissolution and/or solubility and permeability are included. To counteract these issues, several advancements in the field of natural therapeutic substances needed to be addressed. Therefore, in this review, the possible techniques for the dissolution/solubility and permeability improvements have been addressed which could enhance the dissolution and permeability up to several times. In addition, the conventional and modern isolation and purification techniques have been emphasized to achieve the isolation and purification of single or multiple therapeutic constituents with convenience and smarter approaches. Moreover, a brief overview of advanced natural compounds with multiple therapeutic effectiveness have also been anticipated. In brief, enough advancements have been carried out to achieve safe, effective and economic use of natural medicinal agents with improved stability, handling and storage.

Influence of Fermentation Beetroot Juice Process on the Physico-Chemical Properties of Spray Dried Powder

Picking vegetables is, along with salting and drying, one of the oldest ways to preserve food in the world. This is the process of decomposition of simple sugars into lactic acid with the participation of lactic bacteria. The aim of the study was to obtain powders from fermented red beet juice with the highest possible amount of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and active ingredients. For the analysis, juices were squeezed from the vegetables and two types of fermentation were used: a spontaneous fermentation and a dedicated one. After inoculation, samples were taken for analysis on a daily basis. Extract, pH, total acidity, pigments, and color were measured. In addition, microbiological tests were also carried out. The juices from the fifth day of fermentation was also spray dried, to obtain fermented beetroot powder. Juices from 3–5th day were characterized by a high content of LAB and betanin, had also a low pH, which proves that the lactic fermentation is working properly. The exception was the juice from spontaneous fermentation. According to the observations, the fermentation process did not run properly, and further analysis is needed. The powders were stable; however, results obtained from the pigment content and the LAB content are not satisfactory and require further analysis.

Production of a rich-carotenoid colorant from pumpkin peels using oil-in-water emulsion followed by spray drying

Peels and seeds are byproducts generated during the processing of fruits and vegetables that have been cut off or rejected in the food industry. Pumpkin peels are an example of products that provide valuable nutritional aspects but that have low commercial value. This work aimed at recovering carotenoids from pumpkin peels to produce valuable powders. The pumpkin peel flour was obtained from convective drying and milling processes. Liquid-solid extraction produced the ethanol raw extract with a high carotenoid content. Carotenoid extract and Arabic gum suspensions were mixed in proportions of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 w/w. Emulsions produced via Ultra-Turrax (UT) and Ultra-Turrax plus high pressure (UTHP) were evaluated and spray dried. The particles carotenoid concentrations varied from 159.1 to 304.6 µg/g and from 104.3 to 346.2 µg/g for samples primarily produced via UT and UTHP, respectively. UTHP 1:3 particles showed the lowest degradation of carotenoids during 90 days of storage, with a retention index of 79%. The homogenization and spray drying techniques were proven to be suitable steps to preserve the carotenoids recovered from the byproduct studied. Microparticles can be used as a natural dye with potential use in food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

Valorization of Tomato Waste as a Source of Carotenoids

Fast-accumulating scientific evidence from many studies has revealed that fruits and vegetables are the main source of bioactive compounds; in most cases, wastes and byproducts generated by the food processing industry present similar or a higher content of antioxidant compounds. In recent years, the ever-growing amount of agricultural and food wastes has raised serious concerns from an environmental point of view. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in finding new ways for their processing toward safely upgrading these wastes for recovering high-value-added products with a sustainable approach. Among food waste, the abundance of bioactive compounds in byproducts derived from tomato suggests possibility of utilizing them as a low-cost source of antioxidants as functional ingredients. This contribution gives an overview of latest studies on the extraction methods of carotenoids from tomato waste, along with an evaluation of their antioxidant activity, as well as their industrial applications.

Effect of nonthermal treatments on selected natural food pigments and color changes in plant material

In recent years, traditional high-temperature food processing is continuously being replaced by nonthermal processes. Nonthermal processes have a positive effect on food quality, including color and maintaining natural food pigments. Thus, this article describes the influence of nonthermal, new, and traditional treatments on natural food pigments and color changes in plant materials. Characteristics of natural pigments, such as anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids, chlorophylls, and so forth available in the plant tissue, are shortly presented. Also, the characteristics and mechanism of nonthermal processes such as pulsed electric field, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure, pulsed light, cold plasma, supercritical fluid extraction, and lactic acid fermentation are described. Furthermore, the disadvantages of these processes are mentioned. Each treatment is evaluated in terms of its effects on all types of natural food pigments, and the possible applications are discussed. Analysis of the latest literature showed that the use of nonthermal technologies resulted in better preservation of pigments contained in the plant tissue and improved yield of extraction. However, it is important to select the appropriate processing parameters and to optimize this process in relation to a specific type of raw material.

Microencapsulation of carotenoid-rich materials: A review

Carotenoids are natural pigments that present several bioactive properties, including antioxidant, anticarcinogenic and provitamin A activities. However, these compounds are susceptible to degradation when exposed to a number of conditions (e.g. light, heat, oxygen), leading to loss of benefits and hampering their application in food products. Their hydrophobicity also makes incorporation into water-based foods more difficult. Microencapsulation techniques have been applied for decades to provide stability to carotenoid-rich extracts under typical conditions of processing and storage of foods, besides offering several other advantages to the use and application of these materials. This work reviews the recent advances in the microencapsulation of carotenoid-rich extracts, oils and oleoresins from varying sources, evidencing the technologies applied to encapsulate these materials, the effects of encapsulation on the obtained particles, and the impact of such processes on the bioaccessibility and release profile of carotenoids from microparticles. Moreover, recent applications of carotenoid-rich microparticles in food products are discussed. Most of the applied processes were effective in improving different aspects of the encapsulated materials, especially the stability of carotenoids during storage, resulting in microparticles with promising properties for future applications in food products. However, the lack of information about the effects of microencapsulation on carotenoids during processing of model foods, the sensory acceptance of enriched food products and the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of microencapsulated carotenoids reveals gaps that should be explored in the future.

Starch-based materials encapsulating food ingredients: Recent advances in fabrication methods and applications

Encapsulation systems have gained significant interest in designing innovative foods, as they allow for the protection and delivery of food ingredients that have health benefits but are unstable during processing, storage and in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Starch is widely available, cheap, biodegradable, edible, and easy to be modified, thus highly suitable for the development of encapsulants. Much efforts have been made to fabricate various types of porous starch and starch particles using different techniques (e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis, aggregation, emulsification, electrohydrodynamic process, supercritical fluid process, and post-processing drying). Such starch-based systems can load, protect, and deliver various food ingredients (e.g. fatty acids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, flavors, essential oils, irons, vitamins, probiotics, bacteriocins, co-enzymes, and caffeine), exhibiting great potentials in developing foods with tailored flavor, nutrition, sensory properties, and shelf-life. This review surveys recent advances in different aspects of starch-based encapsulation systems including their forms, manufacturing techniques, and applications in foods.

Encapsulation of Carotenoids as Food Colorants via Formation of Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes: A Review

The use of natural carotenoids as food colorants is an important trend of innovation in the industry due to their low toxicity, their potential as bio-functional ingredients, and the increasing demand for natural and organic foods. Despite these benefits, their inclusion in food matrices presents multiple challenges related to their low stability and low water solubility. The present review covers the main concepts and background of carotenoid inclusion complex formation in cyclodextrins as a strategy for their stabilization, and subsequent inclusion in food products as color additives. The review includes the key aspects of the molecular and physicochemical properties of cyclodextrins as complexing agents, and a detailed review of the published evidence on complex formation with natural carotenoids from different sources in cyclodextrins, comparing complex formation methodologies, recovery, inclusion efficiency, and instrumental characterization techniques. Moreover, process flow diagrams (PFD), based on the most promising carotenoid-cyclodextrin complex formation methodologies reported in literature, are proposed, and discussed as a potential tool for their future scale-up. This review shows that the inclusion of carotenoids in complexes with cyclodextrins constitutes a promising technology for the stabilization of these pigments, with possible advantages in terms of their stability in food matrices.

Microencapsulation of Anthocyanins—Critical Review of Techniques and Wall Materials

Anthocyanins are value-added food ingredients that have health-promoting impacts and biological functionalities. Nevertheless, there are technological barriers to their application in the food industry, mainly because of their poor stability and susceptibility to harsh environmental conditions, such as oxygen, temperature, pH, and light, which could profoundly influence the final food product′s physicochemical properties. Microencapsulation technology is extensively investigated to enhance stability, bioaccessibility, and impart controlled release properties. There are many varieties of microencapsulation methods and diverse types of wall materials. However, choosing a proper approach involves considering the processing parameters, equipment availability, and application purposes. The present review thoroughly scrutinizes anthocyanins′ chemical structure, principles, benefits, and drawbacks of different microencapsulation methods, including spray drying, freeze drying, electrospinning/electrospraying, inclusion complexes, emulsification, liposomal systems, ionic gelation, and coacervation. Furthermore, wall materials applied in different techniques plus parameters that affect the powders′ encapsulation efficiency and physicochemical properties are discussed. Future studies should focus on various processing parameters and the combination of different techniques and applications regarding microencapsulated anthocyanins in functional foods to assess their stability, efficiency, and commercialization potentials.

Application of Fluids in Supercritical Conditions in the Polymer Industry

This article reviews the use of fluids under supercritical conditions in processes related to the modern and innovative polymer industry. The most important processes using supercritical fluids are: extraction, particle formation, micronization, encapsulation, impregnation, polymerization and foaming. This review article briefly describes and characterizes the individual processes, with a focus on extraction, micronization, particle formation and encapsulation. The methods mentioned focus on modifications in the scope of conducting processes in a more ecological manner and showing higher quality efficiency. Nowadays, due to the growing trend of ecological solutions in the chemical industry, we see more and more advanced technological solutions. Less toxic fluids under supercritical conditions can be used as an ecological alternative to organic solvents widely used in the polymer industry. The use of supercritical conditions to conduct these processes creates new opportunities for obtaining materials and products with specialized applications, in particular in the medical, pharmacological, cosmetic and food industries, based on substances of natural sources. The considerations contained in this article are intended to increase the awareness of the need to change the existing techniques. In particular, the importance of using supercritical fluids in more industrial methods and for the development of already known processes, as well as creating new solutions with their use, should be emphasized.

Carotenoids: Considerations for Their Use in Functional Foods, Nutraceuticals, Nutricosmetics, Supplements, Botanicals, and Novel Foods in the Context of Sustainability, Circular Economy, and Climate Change

Carotenoids are versatile isoprenoids that are important in food quality and health promotion. There is a need to establish recommended dietary intakes/nutritional reference values for carotenoids. Research on carotenoids in agro-food and health is being propelled by the two multidisciplinary international networks, the Ibero-American Network for the Study of Carotenoids as Functional Foods Ingredients (IBERCAROT; http://www.cyted.org) and the European Network to Advance Carotenoid Research and Applications in Agro-Food and Health (EUROCAROTEN; http://www.eurocaroten.eu). In this review, considerations for their safe and sustainable use in products mostly intended for health promotion are provided. Specifically, information about sources, intakes, and factors affecting bioavailability is summarized. Furthermore, their health-promoting actions and importance in public health in relation to the contribution of reducing the risk of diverse ailments are synthesized. Definitions and regulatory and safety information for carotenoid-containing products are provided. Lastly, recent trends in research in the context of sustainable healthy diets are summarized.

Recent Advances in Astaxanthin Micro/Nanoencapsulation to Improve Its Stability and Functionality as a Food Ingredient

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is also accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans. Astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts obtained from these sources present an intense red color and a remarkable antioxidant activity, providing great potential to be employed as food ingredients with both technological and bioactive functions. However, their use is hindered by: their instability in the presence of high temperatures, acidic pH, oxygen or light; their low water solubility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability; their intense odor/flavor. The present paper reviews recent advances in the micro/nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts, developed to improve their stability, bioactivity and technological functionality for use as food ingredients. The use of diverse micro/nanoencapsulation techniques using wall materials of a different nature to improve water solubility and dispersibility in foods, masking undesirable odor and flavor, is firstly discussed, followed by a discussion of the importance of the encapsulation to retard astaxanthin release, protecting it from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin to improve its bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity is further reviewed. Finally, the main limitations and future trends on the topic are discussed.

Trends on the Rapid Expansion of Supercritical Solutions Process Applied to Food and Non-food Industries

BACKGROUND

The supercritical fluids applied to particle engineering over the last years have received growing interest from the food and non-food industries, in terms of processing, packaging, and preservation of several products. The rapid expansion of supercritical solutions (RESS) process has been recently reported as an efficient technique for the production of free-solvent particles with controlled morphology and size distribution.

OBJECTIVE

In this review, we report technological aspects of the application of the RESS process applied to the food and non-food industry, considering recent data and patent survey registered in literature.

METHODS

The effect of process parameters cosolvent addition, temperature, pressure, nozzle size among others, during RESS on the size, structure and morphology of the resulted particles, and the main differences about recent patented RESS processes are reviewed.

RESULTS

Most of the experimental works intend to optimize their processes through investigation of process parameters.

CONCLUSION

RESS is a feasible alternative for the production of particles with a high yield of bioactive constituents of interest to the food industry. On the other hand, patents developed using this type of process for food products are very scarce, less attention being given to the potential of this technique to develop particles from plant extracts with bioactive substances.

Stabilization of Crystalline Carotenoids in Carrot Concentrate Powders: Effects of Drying Technology, Carrier Material, and Antioxidants

Coloring concentrates of carotenoid-rich plant materials are currently used in the food industry to meet the consumer's demand for natural substitutes for food colorants. The production of shelf-stable powders of such concentrates comes with particular challenges linked to the sensitivity of the active component towards oxidation and the complexity of the composition and microstructure of such concentrates. In this study, different strategies for the stabilization of crystalline carotenoids as part of a natural carrot concentrate matrix during drying and storage were investigated. The evaluated approaches included spray- and freeze drying, the addition of functional additives, and oxygen free storage. Functional additives comprised carrier material (maltodextrin, gum Arabic, and octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA)-modified starch) and antioxidants (mixed tocopherols, sodium ascorbate). Degradation and changes in the physical state of the carotenoid crystals were monitored during processing and storage. Carotenoid losses during processing were low (>5%) irrespective of the used technology and additives. During storage, samples stored in nitrogen showed the highest carotenoid retention (97-100%). The carotenoid retention in powders stored with air access varied between 12.3% ± 2.1% and 66.0% ± 5.4%, having been affected by the particle structure as well as the formulation components used. The comparative evaluation of the tested strategies allows a more targeted design of processing and formulation of functional carrot concentrate powders.

Advances in the Application of Microcapsules as Carriers of Functional Compounds for Food Products

Natural bioactive compounds and living cells have been reported as promising products with beneficial properties to human health. The constant challenge regarding the use of these components is their easy degradation during processing and storage. However, their stability can be improved with the microencapsulation process, in which a compound sensitive to adverse environmental conditions is retained within a protective polymeric material. Microencapsulation is a widely used methodology for the preservation and stabilization of functional compounds for food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic applications. The present review discusses advances in the production and application of microcapsules loaded with functional compounds in food products. The main methods for producing microcapsules, as well as the classes of functional compounds and wall materials used, are presented. Additionally, the release of compounds from loaded microcapsules in food matrices and in simulated gastrointestinal conditions is also assessed.