Arabidopsis J-protein J20 delivers the first enzyme of the plastidial isoprenoid pathway to protein quality control

ORANGE family proteins: multifunctional chaperones shaping plant carotenoid level, plastid development, stress tolerance, and more

ORANGE (OR) family proteins are DnaJE1 molecular chaperones ubiquitous and highly conserved in all plant species, indicating their important roles in plant growth and development. OR proteins have been found to exert multiple functions in regulating carotenoid and chlorophyll biosynthesis, plastid development, and stress tolerance, with additional functions expected to be discovered. As molecular chaperones, OR proteins directly influence the stability of their target proteins via their holdase activity and may perform other molecular roles through unknown mechanisms. Exploration of OR has uncovered novel mechanisms underlying core plant metabolism pathways and expanded our understanding of processes linked to plastid development. Continued investigation of OR family proteins will not only reveal new functions of molecular chaperones but also provide pioneering tools for crop improvement. Thus, OR family proteins offer a distinctive opportunity to comprehend molecular chaperones in modulating various metabolic and developmental processes and exemplify the importance of chaperones in crop development and adaptability. This review briefly details the history of OR family proteins, highlights recent advancements in understanding their myriad of functions, and discusses the prospects of this fascinating group of chaperones towards generating innovative, more nutritious, and resilient crops alongside other agronomically important traits.

Rubisco supplies pyruvate for the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate pathway

RIBULOSE-1,5-BISPHOSPHATE CARBOXYLASE/OXYGENASE (Rubisco) produces pyruvate in the chloroplast through β-elimination of the aci-carbanion intermediate1. Here we show that this side reaction supplies pyruvate for isoprenoid, fatty acid and branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis in photosynthetically active tissue. 13C labelling studies of intact Arabidopsis plants demonstrate that the total carbon commitment to pyruvate is too large for phosphoenolpyruvate to serve as a precursor. Low oxygen stimulates Rubisco carboxylase activity and increases pyruvate production and flux through the 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway, which supplies the precursors for plastidic isoprenoid biosynthesis2,3. Metabolome analysis of mutants defective in phosphoenolpyruvate or pyruvate import and biochemical characterization of isolated chloroplasts further support Rubisco as the main source of pyruvate in chloroplasts. Seedlings incorporated exogenous,13C-labelled pyruvate into MEP pathway intermediates, while adult plants did not, underscoring the developmental transition in pyruvate sourcing. Rubisco β-elimination leading to pyruvate constituted 0.7% of the product profile in in vitro assays, which translates to 2% of the total carbon leaving the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle. These insights solve the "pyruvate paradox"4, improve the fit of metabolic models for central metabolism and connect the MEP pathway directly to carbon assimilation.

Intra-chloroplast proteases: A holistic network view of chloroplast proteolysis

Different proteases and peptidases are present within chloroplasts and nonphotosynthetic plastids to process precursor proteins and to degrade cleaved chloroplast transit peptides and damaged, misfolded, or otherwise unwanted proteins. Collectively, these proteases and peptidases form a proteolysis network, with complementary activities and hierarchies, and build-in redundancies. Furthermore, this network is distributed across the different intra-chloroplast compartments (lumen, thylakoid, stroma, envelope). The challenge is to determine the contributions of each peptidase (system) to this network in chloroplasts and nonphotosynthetic plastids. This will require an understanding of substrate recognition mechanisms, degrons, substrate, and product size limitations, as well as the capacity and degradation kinetics of each protease. Multiple extra-plastidial degradation pathways complement these intra-chloroplast proteases. This review summarizes our current understanding of these intra-chloroplast proteases in Arabidopsis and crop plants with an emphasis on considerations for building a qualitative and quantitative network view.

Protein degrons and degradation: Exploring substrate recognition and pathway selection in plants

Proteome composition is dynamic and influenced by many internal and external cues, including developmental signals, light availability, or environmental stresses. Protein degradation, in synergy with protein biosynthesis, allows cells to respond to various stimuli and adapt by reshaping the proteome. Protein degradation mediates the final and irreversible disassembly of proteins, which is important for protein quality control and to eliminate misfolded or damaged proteins, as well as entire organelles. Consequently, it contributes to cell resilience by buffering against protein or organellar damage caused by stresses. Moreover, protein degradation plays important roles in cell signaling, as well as transcriptional and translational events. The intricate task of recognizing specific proteins for degradation is achieved by specialized systems that are tailored to the substrate's physicochemical properties and subcellular localization. These systems recognize diverse substrate cues collectively referred to as "degrons," which can assume a range of configurations. They are molecular surfaces recognized by E3 ligases of the ubiquitin-proteasome system but can also be considered as general features recognized by other degradation systems, including autophagy or even organellar proteases. Here we provide an overview of the newest developments in the field, delving into the intricate processes of protein recognition and elucidating the pathways through which they are recruited for degradation.

Plant terpenoid biosynthetic network and its multiple layers of regulation

Terpenoids constitute one of the largest and most chemically diverse classes of primary and secondary metabolites in nature with an exceptional breadth of functional roles in plants. Biosynthesis of all terpenoids begins with the universal five‑carbon building blocks, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and its allylic isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), which in plants are derived from two compartmentally separated but metabolically crosstalking routes, the mevalonic acid (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathways. Here, we review the current knowledge on the terpenoid precursor pathways and highlight the critical hidden constraints as well as multiple regulatory mechanisms that coordinate and homeostatically govern carbon flux through the terpenoid biosynthetic network in plants.

Exploring the Deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate Synthase Gene Family in Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Isoprenoids are a wide family of metabolites including high-value chemicals, flavors, pigments, and drugs. Isoprenoids are particularly abundant and diverse in plants. The methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway produces the universal isoprenoid precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate in plant plastids for the downstream production of monoterpenes, diterpenes, and photosynthesis-related isoprenoids such as carotenoids, chlorophylls, tocopherols, phylloquinone, and plastoquinone. The enzyme deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS) is the first and main rate-determining enzyme of the MEP pathway. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), a plant with an active isoprenoid metabolism in several tissues, three genes encode DXS-like proteins (SlDXS1 to 3). Here, we show that the expression patterns of the three genes suggest distinct physiological roles without excluding that they might function together in some tissues. We also confirm that SlDXS1 and 2 are true DXS enzymes, whereas SlDXS3 lacks DXS activity. We further show that SlDXS1 and 2 co-localize in plastidial speckles and that they can be immunoprecipitated together, suggesting that they might form heterodimers in vivo in at least some tissues. These results provide novel insights for the biotechnological use of DXS isoforms in metabolic engineering strategies to up-regulate the MEP pathway flux.

Regulation of chloroplast protein degradation

Chloroplasts are unique organelles that not only provide sites for photosynthesis and many metabolic processes, but also are sensitive to various environmental stresses. Chloroplast proteins are encoded by genes from both nuclear and chloroplast genomes. During chloroplast development and responses to stresses, the robust protein quality control systems are essential for regulation of protein homeostasis and the integrity of chloroplast proteome. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of chloroplast protein degradation refer to protease system, ubiquitin-proteasome system, and the chloroplast autophagy. These mechanisms symbiotically play a vital role in chloroplast development and photosynthesis under both normal or stress conditions.

New Insights Into Short-term Water Stress Tolerance Through Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analyses on Pepper Roots

In the current climate change scenario, water stress is a serious threat to limit crop growth and yields. It is necessary to develop tolerant plants that cope with water stress and, for this purpose, tolerance mechanisms should be studied. NIBER® is a proven water stress- and salt-tolerant pepper hybrid rootstock (Gisbert-Mullor et al., 2020; López-Serrano et al., 2020), but tolerance mechanisms remain unclear. In this experiment, NIBER® and A10 (a sensitive pepper accession (Penella et al., 2014)) response to short-term water stress at 5 h and 24 h was studied in terms of gene expression and metabolites content in roots. GO terms and gene expression analyses evidenced constitutive differences in the transcriptomic profile of NIBER® and A10, associated with detoxification systems of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Upon water stress, transcription factors like DREBs and MYC are upregulated and the levels of auxins, abscisic acid and jasmonic acid are increased in NIBER®. NIBER® tolerance mechanisms involve an increase in osmoprotectant sugars (i.e., trehalose, raffinose) and in antioxidants (spermidine), but lower contents of oxidized glutathione compared to A10, which indicates less oxidative damage. Moreover, the gene expression for aquaporins and chaperones is enhanced. These results show the main NIBER® strategies to overcome water stress.

MEP pathway products allosterically promote monomerization of deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase to feedback-regulate their supply

Isoprenoids are a very large and diverse family of metabolites required by all living organisms. All isoprenoids derive from the double-bond isomers isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), which are produced by the methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway in bacteria and plant plastids. It has been reported that IPP and DMAPP feedback-regulate the activity of deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXS), a dimeric enzyme that catalyzes the main flux-controlling step of the MEP pathway. Here we provide experimental insights into the underlying mechanism. Isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering approaches showed that IPP and DMAPP can allosterically bind to DXS in vitro, causing a size shift. In silico ligand binding site analysis and docking calculations identified a potential allosteric site in the contact region between the two monomers of the active DXS dimer. Modulation of IPP and DMAPP contents in vivo followed by immunoblot analyses confirmed that high IPP/DMAPP levels resulted in monomerization and eventual aggregation of the enzyme in bacterial and plant cells. Loss of the enzymatically active dimeric conformation allows a fast and reversible reduction of DXS activity in response to a sudden increase or decrease in IPP/DMAPP supply, whereas aggregation and subsequent removal of monomers that would otherwise be available for dimerization appears to be a more drastic response in the case of persistent IPP/DMAPP overabundance (e.g., by a blockage in their conversion to downstream isoprenoids). Our results represent an important step toward understanding the regulation of the MEP pathway and rational design of biotechnological endeavors aimed at increasing isoprenoid contents in microbial and plant systems.

The transcription factor IbNAC29 positively regulates the carotenoid accumulation in sweet potato

Carotenoid is a tetraterpene pigment beneficial for human health. Although the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway has been extensively studied in plants, relatively little is known about their regulation in sweet potato. Previously, we conducted the transcriptome database of differentially expressed genes between the sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) cultivar 'Weiduoli' and its high-carotenoid mutant 'HVB-3'. In this study, we selected one of these candidate genes, IbNAC29, for subsequent analyses. IbNAC29 belongs to the plant-specific NAC (NAM, ATAF1/2, and CUC2) transcription factor family. Relative IbNAC29 mRNA level in the HVB-3 storage roots was ~1.71-fold higher than Weiduoli. Additional experiments showed that the contents of α-carotene, lutein, β-carotene, zeaxanthin, and capsanthin are obviously increased in the storage roots of transgenic sweet potato plants overexpressing IbNAC29. Moreover, the levels of carotenoid biosynthesis genes in transgenic plants were also up-regulated. Nevertheless, yeast one-hybrid assays indicated that IbNAC29 could not directly bind to the promoters of these carotenoid biosynthesis genes. Furthermore, the level of IbSGR1 was down-regulated, whose homologous genes in tomato can negatively regulate carotene accumulation. Yeast three-hybrid analysis revealed that the IbNAC29-IbMYB1R1-IbAITR5 could form a regulatory module. Yeast one-hybrid, electrophoretic mobility shift assay, quantitative PCR analysis of chromatin immunoprecipitation and dual-luciferase reporter assay showed that IbAITR5 directly binds to and inhibits the promoter activity of IbSGR1, up-regulating carotenoid biosynthesis gene IbPSY. Taken together, IbNAC29 is a potential candidate gene for the genetic improvement of nutritive value in sweet potato.

Translational profile of coding and non-coding RNAs revealed by genome wide profiling of ribosome footprints in grapevine

Translation is a crucial process during plant growth and morphogenesis. In grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.), many transcripts can be detected by RNA sequencing; however, their translational regulation is still largely unknown, and a great number of translation products have not yet been identified. Here, ribosome footprint sequencing was carried out to reveal the translational profile of RNAs in grapevine. A total of 8291 detected transcripts were divided into four parts, including the coding, untranslated regions (UTR), intron, and intergenic regions, and the 26 nt ribosome-protected fragments (RPFs) showed a 3 nt periodic distribution. Furthermore, the predicted proteins were identified and classified by GO analysis. More importantly, 7 heat shock-binding proteins were found to be involved in molecular chaperone DNA J families participating in abiotic stress responses. These 7 proteins have different expression patterns in grape tissues; one of them was significantly upregulated by heat stress according to bioinformatics research and was identified as DNA JA6. The subcellular localization results showed that VvDNA JA6 and VvHSP70 were both localized on the cell membrane. Therefore, we speculate that DNA JA6 may interact with HSP70. In addition, overexpression of VvDNA JA6 and VvHSP70, reduced the malondialdehyde (MDA) content, improved the antioxidant enzyme activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and peroxidase (POD), increased the content of proline, an osmolyte substance, and affected the expression of the high-temperature marker genes VvHsfB1, VvHsfB2A, VvHsfC and VvHSP100. In summary, our study proved that VvDNA JA6 and the heat shock protein VvHSP70 play a positive role in the response to heat stress. This study lays a foundation for further exploring the balance between gene expression and protein translation in grapevine under heat stress.

Research Progress in J-Proteins in the Chloroplast

The J-proteins, also called DNAJ-proteins or heat shock protein 40 (HSP40), are one of the famous molecular chaperones. J-proteins, HSP70s and other chaperones work together as constitute ubiquitous types of molecular chaperone complex, which function in a wide variety of physiological processes. J-proteins are widely distributed in major cellular compartments. In the chloroplast of higher plants, around 18 J-proteins and multiple J-like proteins are present; however, the functions of most of them remain unclear. During the last few years, important progress has been made in the research on their roles in plants. There is increasing evidence that the chloroplast J-proteins play essential roles in chloroplast development, photosynthesis, seed germination and stress response. Here, we summarize recent research advances on the roles of J-proteins in the chloroplast, and discuss the open questions that remain in this field.

The gibberellic acid derived from the plastidial MEP pathway is involved in the accumulation of Bamboo mosaic virus

A gene upregulated in Nicotiana benthamiana after Bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV) infection was revealed as 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (NbDXR). DXR is the key enzyme in the 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol-4-phosphate (MEP) pathway that catalyzes the conversion of 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate to 2-C-methyl-d-erythritol-4-phosphate. Knockdown and overexpression of NbDXR followed by BaMV inoculation revealed that NbDXR is involved in BaMV accumulation. Treating leaves with fosmidomycin, an inhibitor of DXR function, reduced BaMV accumulation. Subcellular localization confirmed that DXR is a chloroplast-localized protein by confocal microscopy. Furthermore, knockdown of 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl-4-diphosphate reductase, one of the enzymes in the MEP pathway, also reduced BaMV accumulation. The accumulation of BaMV increased significantly in protoplasts treated with isopentenyl pyrophosphate. Thus, the metabolites of the MEP pathway could be involved in BaMV infection. To identify the critical components involved in BaMV accumulation, we knocked down the crucial enzyme of isoprenoid synthesis, NbGGPPS11 or NbGGPPS2. Only NbGGPPS2 was involved in BaMV infection. The geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) synthesized by NbGGPPS2 is known for gibberellin synthesis. We confirmed this result by supplying gibberellic acid exogenously on leaves, which increased BaMV accumulation. The de novo synthesis of gibberellic acid could assist BaMV accumulation.

A proteostasis network safeguards the chloroplast proteome

Several protein homeostasis (proteostasis) pathways safeguard the integrity of thousands of proteins that localize in plant chloroplasts, the indispensable organelles that perform photosynthesis, produce metabolites, and sense environmental stimuli. In this review, we discuss the latest efforts directed to define the molecular process by which proteins are imported and sorted into the chloroplast. Moreover, we describe the recently elucidated protein folding and degradation pathways that modulate the levels and activities of chloroplast proteins. We also discuss the links between the accumulation of misfolded proteins and the activation of signalling pathways that cope with folding stress within the organelle. Finally, we propose new research directions that would help to elucidate novel molecular mechanisms to maintain chloroplast proteostasis.

Plant carotenoids: recent advances and future perspectives

Carotenoids are isoprenoid metabolites synthesized de novo in all photosynthetic organisms. Carotenoids are essential for plants with diverse functions in photosynthesis, photoprotection, pigmentation, phytohormone synthesis, and signaling. They are also critically important for humans as precursors of vitamin A synthesis and as dietary antioxidants. The vital roles of carotenoids to plants and humans have prompted significant progress toward our understanding of carotenoid metabolism and regulation. New regulators and novel roles of carotenoid metabolites are continuously revealed. This review focuses on current status of carotenoid metabolism and highlights recent advances in comprehension of the intrinsic and multi-dimensional regulation of carotenoid accumulation. We also discuss the functional evolution of carotenoids, the agricultural and horticultural application, and some key areas for future research.

Action mechanisms of small microbial volatile compounds in plants

Microorganisms communicate with plants by exchanging chemical signals throughout the phytosphere. Before direct contact with plants occurs, beneficial microorganisms emit a plethora of volatile compounds that promote plant growth and photosynthesis as well as developmental, metabolic, transcriptional, and proteomic changes in plants. These compounds can also induce systemic drought tolerance and improve water and nutrient acquisition. Recent studies have shown that this capacity is not restricted to beneficial microbes; it also extends to phytopathogens. Plant responses to microbial volatile compounds have frequently been associated with volatile organic compounds with molecular masses ranging between ~ 45Da and 300Da. However, microorganisms also release a limited number of volatile compounds with molecular masses of less than ~45Da that react with proteins and/or act as signaling molecules. Some of these compounds promote photosynthesis and growth when exogenously applied in low concentrations. Recently, evidence has shown that small volatile compounds are important determinants of plant responses to microbial volatile emissions. However, the regulatory mechanisms involved in these responses remain poorly understood. This review summarizes current knowledge of biochemical and molecular mechanisms involved in plant growth, development, and metabolic responses to small microbial volatile compounds.

Making extra room for carotenoids in plant cells: New opportunities for biofortification

Plant carotenoids are essential for photosynthesis and photoprotection and provide colors in the yellow to red range to non-photosynthetic organs such as petals and ripe fruits. They are also the precursors of biologically active molecules not only in plants (including hormones and retrograde signals) but also in animals (including retinoids such as vitamin A). A carotenoid-rich diet has been associated with improved health and cognitive capacity in humans, whereas the use of carotenoids as natural pigments is widespread in the agrofood and cosmetic industries. The nutritional and economic relevance of carotenoids has spurred a large number of biotechnological strategies to enrich plant tissues with carotenoids. Most of such approaches to alter carotenoid contents in plants have been focused on manipulating their biosynthesis or degradation, whereas improving carotenoid sink capacity in plant tissues has received much less attention. Our knowledge on the molecular mechanisms influencing carotenoid storage in plants has substantially grown in the last years, opening new opportunities for carotenoid biofortification. Here we will review these advances with a particular focus on those creating extra room for carotenoids in plant cells either by promoting the differentiation of carotenoid-sequestering structures within plastids or by transferring carotenoid production to the cytosol.

Overexpression of seagrass DnaJ gene ZjDjB1 enhances the thermotolerance of transgenic arabidopsis thaliana

Seagrass meadows are one of the most important marine resources that grow along the coast. They provide habitat and a food source for animals. They also protect the coast, fix sediment and purify seawater. In the current period of global climate change, anomalies in coastal water temperatures are increasing. A sudden increase in water temperature owing to a heat wave can have a profound effect on seagrass. Zostera japonica is a type of intertidal seagrasses, which is exposed to the air at low tide. High temperatures in the summer often lead to a decline in seagrass meadows. DnaJ proteins, also known as J proteins, are a family of conserved chaperone proteins. They are designated as J proteins because they contain a highly conserved J domain. They function as chaperones of heat shock proteins in organisms. In this study, the role of DnaJ protein (ZjDjB1) of Z. japonica under heat stress was studied. ZjDjB1 was localized to the cytoplasm and nucleus. The overexpression of ZjDjB1 in Arabidopsis thaliana results in an increase in thermotolerance and a decrease in the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and also a reduction in membrane damage. ZjDjB1 may achieve this goal by maintaining a low activity of proteolytic enzymes.

The intrinsic chaperone network of Arabidopsis stem cells confers protection against proteotoxic stress

The biological purpose of plant stem cells is to maintain themselves while providing new pools of differentiated cells that form organs and rejuvenate or replace damaged tissues. Protein homeostasis or proteostasis is required for cell function and viability. However, the link between proteostasis and plant stem cell identity remains unknown. In contrast to their differentiated counterparts, we find that root stem cells can prevent the accumulation of aggregated proteins even under proteotoxic stress conditions such as heat stress or proteasome inhibition. Notably, root stem cells exhibit enhanced expression of distinct chaperones that maintain proteome integrity. Particularly, intrinsic high levels of the T-complex protein-1 ring complex/chaperonin containing TCP1 (TRiC/CCT) complex determine stem cell maintenance and their remarkable ability to suppress protein aggregation. Overexpression of CCT8, a key activator of TRiC/CCT assembly, is sufficient to ameliorate protein aggregation in differentiated cells and confer resistance to proteotoxic stress in plants. Taken together, our results indicate that enhanced proteostasis mechanisms in stem cells could be an important requirement for plants to persist under extreme environmental conditions and reach extreme long ages. Thus, proteostasis of stem cells can provide insights to design and breed plants tolerant to environmental challenges caused by the climate change.

Several geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase isoforms supply metabolic substrates for carotenoid biosynthesis in tomato

Geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP) produced by GGPP synthase (GGPPS) serves as a precursor for many plastidial isoprenoids, including carotenoids. Phytoene synthase (PSY) converts GGPP into phytoene, the first committed intermediate of the carotenoid pathway. Here we used biochemical, molecular, and genetic tools to characterise the plastidial members of the GGPPS family in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and their interaction with PSY isoforms. The three tomato GGPPS isoforms found to localise in plastids (SlG1, 2 and 3) exhibit similar kinetic parameters. Gene expression analyses showed a preferential association of individual GGPPS and PSY isoforms when carotenoid biosynthesis was induced during root mycorrhization, seedling de-etiolation and fruit ripening. SlG2, but not SlG3, physically interacts with PSY proteins. By contrast, CRISPR-Cas9 mutants defective in SlG3 showed a stronger impact on carotenoid levels and derived metabolic, physiological and developmental phenotypes compared with those impaired in SlG2. Double mutants defective in both genes could not be rescued. Our work demonstrates that the bulk of GGPP production in tomato chloroplasts and chromoplasts relies on two cooperating GGPPS paralogues, unlike other plant species such as Arabidopsis thaliana, rice or pepper, which produce their essential plastidial isoprenoids using a single GGPPS isoform.

The FtsHi Enzymes of Arabidopsis thaliana: Pseudo-Proteases with an Important Function

FtsH metalloproteases found in eubacteria, animals, and plants are well-known for their vital role in the maintenance and proteolysis of membrane proteins. Their location is restricted to organelles of endosymbiotic origin, the chloroplasts, and mitochondria. In the model organism Arabidopsis thaliana, there are 17 membrane-bound FtsH proteases containing an AAA+ (ATPase associated with various cellular activities) and a Zn2+ metalloprotease domain. However, in five of those, the zinc-binding motif HEXXH is either mutated (FtsHi1, 2, 4, 5) or completely missing (FtsHi3), rendering these enzymes presumably inactive in proteolysis. Still, homozygous null mutants of the pseudo-proteases FtsHi1, 2, 4, 5 are embryo-lethal. Homozygous ftshi3 or a weak point mutant in FTSHi1 are affected in overall plant growth and development. This review will focus on the findings concerning the FtsHi pseudo-proteases and their involvement in protein import, leading to consequences in embryogenesis, seed growth, chloroplast, and leaf development and oxidative stress management.

Structural basis of substrate recognition and thermal protection by a small heat shock protein

Small heat shock proteins (sHsps) bind unfolding proteins, thereby playing a pivotal role in the maintenance of proteostasis in virtually all living organisms. Structural elucidation of sHsp-substrate complexes has been hampered by the transient and heterogeneous nature of their interactions, and the precise mechanisms underlying substrate recognition, promiscuity, and chaperone activity of sHsps remain unclear. Here we show the formation of a stable complex between Arabidopsis thaliana plastid sHsp, Hsp21, and its natural substrate 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase (DXPS) under heat stress, and report cryo-electron microscopy structures of Hsp21, DXPS and Hsp21-DXPS complex at near-atomic resolution. Monomeric Hsp21 binds across the dimer interface of DXPS and engages in multivalent interactions by recognizing highly dynamic structural elements in DXPS. Hsp21 partly unfolds its central α-crystallin domain to facilitate binding of DXPS, which preserves a native-like structure. This mode of interaction suggests a mechanism of sHsps anti-aggregation activity towards a broad range of substrates.

Structure, function, and substrates of Clp AAA+ protease systems in cyanobacteria, plastids, and apicoplasts: A comparative analysis

ATPases Associated with diverse cellular Activities (AAA+) are a superfamily of proteins that typically assemble into hexameric rings. These proteins contain AAA+ domains with two canonical motifs (Walker A and B) that bind and hydrolyze ATP, allowing them to perform a wide variety of different functions. For example, AAA+ proteins play a prominent role in cellular proteostasis by controlling biogenesis, folding, trafficking, and degradation of proteins present within the cell. Several central proteolytic systems (e.g., Clp, Deg, FtsH, Lon, 26S proteasome) use AAA+ domains or AAA+ proteins to unfold protein substrates (using energy from ATP hydrolysis) to make them accessible for degradation. This allows AAA+ protease systems to degrade aggregates and large proteins, as well as smaller proteins, and feed them as linearized molecules into a protease chamber. This review provides an up-to-date and a comparative overview of the essential Clp AAA+ protease systems in Cyanobacteria (e.g., Synechocystis spp), plastids of photosynthetic eukaryotes (e.g., Arabidopsis, Chlamydomonas), and apicoplasts in the nonphotosynthetic apicomplexan pathogen Plasmodium falciparum. Recent progress and breakthroughs in identifying Clp protease structures, substrates, substrate adaptors (e.g., NblA/B, ClpS, ClpF), and degrons are highlighted. We comment on the physiological importance of Clp activity, including plastid biogenesis, proteostasis, the chloroplast Protein Unfolding Response, and metabolism, across these diverse lineages. Outstanding questions as well as research opportunities and priorities to better understand the essential role of Clp systems in cellular proteostasis are discussed.

Proteostatic Regulation of MEP and Shikimate Pathways by Redox-Activated Photosynthesis Signaling in Plants Exposed to Small Fungal Volatiles

Microorganisms produce volatile compounds (VCs) with molecular masses of less than 300 Da that promote plant growth and photosynthesis. Recently, we have shown that small VCs of less than 45 Da other than CO₂ are major determinants of plant responses to fungal volatile emissions. However, the regulatory mechanisms involved in the plants' responses to small microbial VCs remain unclear. In Arabidopsis thaliana plants exposed to small fungal VCs, growth promotion is accompanied by reduction of the thiol redox of Calvin-Benson cycle (CBC) enzymes and changes in the levels of shikimate and 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway-related compounds. We hypothesized that plants' responses to small microbial VCs involve post-translational modulation of enzymes of the MEP and shikimate pathways via mechanisms involving redox-activated photosynthesis signaling. To test this hypothesis, we compared the responses of wild-type (WT) plants and a cfbp1 mutant defective in a redox-regulated isoform of the CBC enzyme fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase to small VCs emitted by the fungal phytopathogen Alternaria alternata. Fungal VC-promoted growth and photosynthesis, as well as metabolic and proteomic changes, were substantially weaker in cfbp1 plants than in WT plants. In WT plants, but not in cfbp1 plants, small fungal VCs reduced the levels of both transcripts and proteins of the stromal Clp protease system and enhanced those of plastidial chaperonins and co-chaperonins. Consistently, small fungal VCs promoted the accumulation of putative Clp protease clients including MEP and shikimate pathway enzymes. clpr1-2 and clpc1 mutants with disrupted plastidial protein homeostasis responded weakly to small fungal VCs, strongly indicating that plant responses to microbial volatile emissions require a finely regulated plastidial protein quality control system. Our findings provide strong evidence that plant responses to fungal VCs involve chloroplast-to-nucleus retrograde signaling of redox-activated photosynthesis leading to proteostatic regulation of the MEP and shikimate pathways.

A multifocal approach towards understanding the complexities of carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in rice grains

Carotenoids are mostly C40 terpenoids that participate in several important functions in plants including photosynthesis, responses to various forms of stress, signal transduction and photoprotection. While the antioxidant potential of carotenoids is of particular importance for human health, equally important is the role of β-carotene as the precursor for vitamin A in the human diet. Rice, which contributes upto 40% of dietary energy for mankind, contains very low level of β-carotene, thereby making it an important crop for enhancing β-carotene accumulation in its grains and consequently targeting vitamin A deficiency. Biosynthesis of carotenoids in the endosperm of white rice is blocked at the first enzymatic step wherein geranylgeranyl diphosphate is converted to phytoene by the action of phytoene synthase (PSY). Strategies aimed at enhancing β-carotene levels in the endosperm of white rice identified Narcissus pseudonarcissus (npPSY) and bacterial CRT1 as the regulators of the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway in rice. Besides transcriptional regulation of PSY, posttranscriptional regulation of PSY expression by OR gene, molecular synergism between ε-LCY and β-LCY and epigenetic control of CRITSO through SET DOMAIN containing protein appear to be the other regulatory nodes which regulate carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation in rice grains. In this review, we elucidate a comprehensive and deeper understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of carotenoid metabolism in crops that will enable us to identify an effective tool to alleviate carotenoid content in rice grains.

Low-Copy Genes in Terpenoid Metabolism: The Evolution and Expression of MVK and DXR Genes in Angiosperms

Terpenoids are a diverse class of metabolites that impact plant metabolism in response to environmental cues. They are synthesized either via a predominantly cytosolic (MVA) pathway or a plastidic pathway (MEP). In Arabidopsis, several enzymes from the MVA and MEP pathways are encoded by gene families, excluding MVK and DXR, which are single-copy genes. In this study, we assess the diversity, evolution and expression of DXR and MVK genes in selected angiosperms and Coffea arabica in particular. Evolutionary analysis revealed that DXR and MVK underwent purifying selection, but the selection effect for DXR was stronger than it was for MVK. Digital gene expression (DGE) profile analysis of six species revealed that expression levels of MVK in flowers and roots were high, whereas for DXR peak values were observed in leaves. In C. arabica, both genes were highly expressed in flowers, and CaDXR was upregulated in response to methyl jasmonate. C. arabica DGE data were validated by assessing gene expression in selected organs, and by plants treated with hexanoic acid (Hx) using RT-qPCR. MVK expression was upregulated in roots treated with Hx. CaDXR was downregulated in leaves by Hx treatment in a genotype-specific manner, indicating a differential response to priming.

Cellular and Subcellular Compartmentation of the 2C-Methyl-D-Erythritol 4-Phosphate Pathway in the Madagascar Periwinkle

The Madagascar periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) synthesizes the highly valuable monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs) through a long metabolic route initiated by the 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) pathway. In leaves, a complex compartmentation of the MIA biosynthetic pathway occurs at both the cellular and subcellular levels, notably for some gene products of the MEP pathway. To get a complete overview of the pathway organization, we cloned four genes encoding missing enzymes involved in the MEP pathway before conducting a systematic analysis of transcript distribution and protein subcellular localization. RNA in situ hybridization revealed that all MEP pathway genes were coordinately and mainly expressed in internal phloem-associated parenchyma of young leaves, reinforcing the role of this tissue in MIA biosynthesis. At the subcellular level, transient cell transformation and expression of fluorescent protein fusions showed that all MEP pathway enzymes were targeted to plastids. Surprisingly, two isoforms of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase and 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase initially exhibited an artifactual aggregated pattern of localization due to high protein accumulation. Immunogold combined with transmission electron microscopy, transient transformations performed with a low amount of transforming DNA and fusion/deletion experiments established that both enzymes were rather diffuse in stroma and stromules of plastids as also observed for the last six enzymes of the pathway. Taken together, these results provide new insights into a potential role of stromules in enhancing MIA precursor exchange with other cell compartments to favor metabolic fluxes towards the MIA biosynthesis.

Carotenoid biofortification in crop plants: citius, altius, fortius

Carotenoids are indispensable for human health, required as precursors of vitamin A and efficient antioxidants. However, these plant pigments that play a vital role in photosynthesis are represented at insufficient levels in edible parts of several crops, which creates a need for increasing their content or optimizing their composition through biofortification. In particular, vitamin A deficiency, a severe health problem affecting the lives of millions in developing countries, has triggered the development of a series of high-provitamin A crops, including Golden Rice as the best-known example. Further carotenoid-biofortified crops have been generated by using genetic engineering approaches or through classical breeding. In this review, we depict carotenoid metabolism in plants and provide an update on the development of carotenoid-biofortified plants and their potential to meet needs and expectations. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of using natural variation for carotenoid biofortification and the potential of gene editing tools. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Carotenoids recent advances in cell and molecular biology edited by Johannes von Lintig and Loredana Quadro.

Pathways for Carotenoid Biosynthesis, Degradation, and Storage

Carotenoids are isoprenoid compounds synthesized de novo in all photosynthetic organisms as well as in some nonphotosynthetic bacteria and fungi. In plants, carotenoids are essential for light harvesting and photoprotection. They contribute to the vivid color found in many plant organs. The cleavage of carotenoids produces small molecules (apocarotenoids) that serve as aroma compounds, as well as phytohormones and signals to affect plant growth and development. Since carotenoids provide valuable nutrition and health benefits for humans, understanding of carotenoid biosynthesis, catabolism and storage is important for biofortification of crops with improved nutritional quality. This chapter primarily introduces our current knowledge about carotenoid biosynthesis and degradation pathways as well as carotenoid storage in plants.

Toward the 'golden' era: The status in uncovering the regulatory control of carotenoid accumulation in plants

Carotenoids are essential pigments to plants and important natural products to humans. Carotenoids as both primary and specialized metabolites fulfill multifaceted functions in plants. As such, carotenoid accumulation (a net process of biosynthesis, degradation and sequestration) is subjected to complicated regulation throughout plant life cycle in response to developmental and environmental signals. Investigation of transcriptional regulation of carotenoid metabolic genes remains the focus in understanding the regulatory control of carotenoid accumulation. While discovery of bona fide carotenoid metabolic regulators is still challenging, the recent progress of identification of various transcription factors and regulators helps us to construct hierarchical regulatory network of carotenoid accumulation. The elucidation of carotenoid regulatory mechanisms at protein level and in chromoplast provides some insights into post-translational regulation of carotenogenic enzymes and carotenoid sequestration in plastid sink. This review briefly describes the pathways and main flux-controlling steps for carotenoid accumulation in plants. It highlights our recent understanding of the regulatory mechanisms underlying carotenoid accumulation at both transcriptional and post-translational levels. It also discusses the opportunities to expand toolbox for further shedding light upon the intrinsic regulation of carotenoid accumulation in plants.

The expanding world of plant J-domain proteins

Plants maintain cellular proteostasis during different phases of growth and development despite a barrage of biotic and abiotic stressors in an ever-changing environment. This requires a collaborative effort of a cadre of molecular chaperones. Hsp70s and their obligate co-chaperones, J-domain proteins (JDPs), are arguably the most ubiquitous and formidable components of the cellular chaperone network, facilitating numerous and diverse cellular processes and allowing survival under a plethora of stressful conditions. JDPs are also among the most versatile chaperones. Compared to Hsp70s, the number of JDP-encoding genes has proliferated, suggesting the emergence of highly complex Hsp70-JDP networks, particularly in plants. Recent studies indicate that besides the increase in the number of JDP encoding genes; regulatory differences, neo- and sub-functionalization, and inter- and intra-class combinatorial interactions, is rapidly expanding the repertoire of Hsp70-JDP systems. This results in highly robust and functionally diverse chaperone networks in plants. Here, we review the current status of plant JDP research and discuss how the paradigm shift in the field can be exploited toward a better understanding of JDP function and evolution.

Harnessing evolutionary diversification of primary metabolism for plant synthetic biology

Plants produce numerous natural products that are essential to both plant and human physiology. Recent identification of genes and enzymes involved in their biosynthesis now provides exciting opportunities to reconstruct plant natural product pathways in heterologous systems through synthetic biology. The use of plant chassis, although still in infancy, can take advantage of plant cells' inherent capacity to synthesize and store various phytochemicals. Also, large-scale plant biomass production systems, driven by photosynthetic energy production and carbon fixation, could be harnessed for industrial-scale production of natural products. However, little is known about which plants could serve as ideal hosts and how to optimize plant primary metabolism to efficiently provide precursors for the synthesis of desirable downstream natural products or specialized (secondary) metabolites. Although primary metabolism is generally assumed to be conserved, unlike the highly-diversified specialized metabolism, primary metabolic pathways and enzymes can differ between microbes and plants and also among different plants, especially at the interface between primary and specialized metabolisms. This review highlights examples of the diversity in plant primary metabolism and discusses how we can utilize these variations in plant synthetic biology. I propose that understanding the evolutionary, biochemical, genetic, and molecular bases of primary metabolic diversity could provide rational strategies for identifying suitable plant hosts and for further optimizing primary metabolism for sizable production of natural and bio-based products in plants.

Impaired PSII proteostasis triggers a UPR-like response in the var2 mutant of Arabidopsis

Cellular protein homeostasis (proteostasis) is maintained through the balance between de novo synthesis and proteolysis. The unfolded/misfolded protein response (UPR) that is triggered by stressed endoplasmic reticulum (ER) also plays an important role in proteostasis in both plants and animals. Although ER-triggered UPR has been extensively studied in plants, the molecular mechanisms underlying mitochondrial and chloroplastic UPRs are largely uncharacterized despite the fact that these organelles are sites of production of harmful reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damage proteins. In this study, we demonstrate that chloroplasts of the Arabidopsis yellow leaf variegation 2 (var2) mutant, which lacks the metalloprotease FtsH2, accumulate damaged chloroplast proteins and trigger a UPR-like response, namely the accumulation of a suite of chloroplast proteins involved in protein quality control (PQC). These PQC proteins include heat-shock proteins, chaperones, proteases, and ROS detoxifiers. Given that FtsH2 functions primarily in photosystem II proteostasis, the accumulation of PQC-related proteins may balance the FtsH2 deficiency. Moreover, the apparent up-regulation of the cognate transcripts indicates that the accumulation of PQC-related proteins in var2 is probably mediated by retrograde signaling, indicating the occurrence of a UPR-like response in var2.

Functional analysis of the Chloroplast GrpE (CGE) proteins from Arabidopsis thaliana

The function of proteins depends on specific partners that regulate protein folding, degradation and protein-protein interactions, such partners are the chaperones and cochaperones. In chloroplasts, proteins belonging to several families of chaperones have been identified: chaperonins (Cpn60s), Hsp90s (Hsp90-5/Hsp90C), Hsp100s (Hsp93/ClpC) and Hsp70s (cpHsc70s). Several lines of evidence have demonstrated that cpHsc70 chaperones are involved in molecular processes like protein import, protein folding and oligomer formation that impact important physiological aspects in plants such as thermotolerance and thylakoid biogenesis. Despite the vast amount of data existing around the function of cpHcp70s chaperones, very little attention has been paid to the roles of DnaJ and GrpE cochaperones in the chloroplast. In this study, we performed a phylogenetic analysis of the chloroplastic GrpE (CGE) proteins from 71 species. Based on their phylogenetic relationships and on a motif enrichment analysis, we propose a classification system for land plants' CGEs, which include two independent groups with specific primary structure traits. Furthermore, using in vivo assays we determined that the two CGEs from A. thaliana (AtCGEs) complement the mutant phenotype displayed by a knockout E. coli strain defective in the bacterial grpE gene. Moreover, we determined in planta that the two AtCGEs are bona fide chloroplastic proteins, which form the essential homodimers needed to establish direct physical interactions with the cpHsc70-1 chaperone. Finally, we found evidence suggesting that AtCGE1 is involved in specific physiological phenomena in A. thaliana, such as the chloroplastic response to heat stress, and the correct oligomerization of the photosynthesis-related LHCII complex.

Control of plastidial metabolism by the Clp protease complex

Plant metabolism is strongly dependent on plastids. Besides hosting the photosynthetic machinery, these endosymbiotic organelles synthesize starch, fatty acids, amino acids, nucleotides, tetrapyrroles, and isoprenoids. Virtually all enzymes involved in plastid-localized metabolic pathways are encoded by the nuclear genome and imported into plastids. Once there, protein quality control systems ensure proper folding of the mature forms and remove irreversibly damaged proteins. The Clp protease is the main machinery for protein degradation in the plastid stroma. Recent work has unveiled an increasing number of client proteins of this proteolytic complex in plants. Notably, a substantial proportion of these substrates are required for normal chloroplast metabolism, including enzymes involved in the production of essential tetrapyrroles and isoprenoids such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. The Clp protease complex acts in coordination with nuclear-encoded plastidial chaperones for the control of both enzyme levels and proper folding (i.e. activity). This communication involves a retrograde signaling pathway, similarly to the unfolded protein response previously characterized in mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Coordinated Clp protease and chaperone activities appear to further influence other plastid processes, such as the differentiation of chloroplasts into carotenoid-accumulating chromoplasts during fruit ripening.

Manipulation of Plastidial Protein Quality Control Components as a New Strategy to Improve Carotenoid Contents in Tomato Fruit

Carotenoids such as β-carotene (pro-vitamin A) and lycopene accumulate at high levels during tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit ripening, contributing to the characteristic color and nutritional quality of ripe tomatoes. Besides their role as pigments in chromoplast-harboring tissues such as ripe fruits, carotenoids are important for photosynthesis and photoprotection in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic tissues. Interestingly, recent work in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. has unveiled a critical role of chloroplast protein quality control components in the regulation of carotenoid biosynthesis. The accumulation (i.e. degradation rate) and activity (i.e. folding status) of phytoene synthase (PSY) and other Arabidopsis biosynthetic enzymes is modulated by chaperones such as Orange (OR) and Hsp70 in coordination with the stromal Clp protease complex. OR and Clp protease were recently shown to also influence PSY stability and carotenoid accumulation in tomato. Here we show how manipulating the levels of plastid-localized Hsp70 in transgenic tomato plants can also impact the accumulation of carotenoids in ripe fruit. The resulting carotenoid profile and chromoplast ultrastructure, however, are different from those obtained in tomatoes from transgenic lines with increased OR activity. These results suggest that different chaperone families target different processes related to carotenoid metabolism and accumulation during tomato ripening. We further discuss other possible targets for future manipulation in tomato based on the knowledge acquired in Arabidopsis.

Shedding light on the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP)-pathway: long hypocotyl 5 (HY5)/phytochrome-interacting factors (PIFs) transcription factors modulating key limiting steps

The plastidial methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway is an essential route for plants as the source of precursors for all plastidial isoprenoids, many of which are of medical and biotechnological importance. The MEP pathway is highly sensitive to environmental cues as many of these compounds are linked to photosynthesis and growth and light is one of the main regulatory factors. However, the mechanisms coordinating the MEP pathway with light cues are not fully understood. Here we demonstrate that by a differential direct transcriptional modulation, via the key-master integrators of light signal transduction HY5 and PIFs which target the genes that encode the rate-controlling DXS1, DXR and HDR enzymes, light imposes a direct, rapid and potentially multi-faceted response that leads to unique protein dynamics of this pathway, resulting in a significant difference in the protein levels. For DXS1, PIF1/HY5 act as a direct activation/suppression module. In contrast, DXR accumulation in response to light results from HY5 induction with minor contribution of de-repression by PIF1. Finally, HDR transcription increases in the light exclusively by suppression of the PIFs repression. This is an example of how light signaling components can differentially multi-target the initial steps of a pathway whose products branch downstream to all chloroplastic isoprenoids. These findings demonstrate the diversity and flexibility of light signaling components that optimize key biochemical pathways essential for plant growth.

CHLOROPLAST RIBOSOME ASSOCIATED Supports Translation under Stress and Interacts with the Ribosomal 30S Subunit

Chloroplast ribosomes, which originated from cyanobacteria, comprise a large subunit (50S) and a small subunit (30S) containing ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) and various ribosomal proteins. Genes for many chloroplast ribosomal proteins, as well as proteins with auxiliary roles in ribosome biogenesis or functioning, reside in the nucleus. Here, we identified Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) CHLOROPLAST RIBOSOME ASSOCIATED (CRASS), a member of the latter class of proteins, based on the tight coexpression of its mRNA with transcripts for nucleus-encoded chloroplast ribosomal proteins. CRASS was acquired during the evolution of embryophytes and is localized to the chloroplast stroma. Loss of CRASS results in minor defects in development, photosynthetic efficiency, and chloroplast translation activity under controlled growth conditions, but these phenotypes are greatly exacerbated under stress conditions induced by the translational inhibitors lincomycin and chloramphenicol or by cold treatment. The CRASS protein comigrates with chloroplast ribosomal particles and coimmunoprecipitates with the 16S rRNA and several chloroplast ribosomal proteins, particularly the plastid ribosomal proteins of the 30S subunit (PRPS1 and PRPS5). The association of CRASS with PRPS1 and PRPS5 is independent of rRNA and is not detectable in yeast two-hybrid experiments, implying that either CRASS interacts indirectly with PRPS1 and PRPS5 via another component of the small ribosomal subunit or that it recognizes structural features of the multiprotein/rRNA particle. CRASS plays a role in the biogenesis and/or stability of the chloroplast ribosome that becomes critical under certain stressful conditions when ribosomal activity is compromised.

A lycopene β-cyclase gene, IbLCYB2, enhances carotenoid contents and abiotic stress tolerance in transgenic sweetpotato

Lycopene β-cyclase (LCYB) is an essential enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of lycopene into α-carotene and β-carotene in carotenoid biosynthesis pathway. However, the roles and underlying mechanisms of the LCYB gene in plant responses to abiotic stresses are rarely known. This gene has not been used to improve carotenoid contents of sweetpotato, Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.. In the present study, a new allele of the LCYB gene, named IbLCYB2, was isolated from the storage roots of sweetpotato line HVB-3. Its overexpression significantly increased the contents of α-carotene, β-carotene, lutein, β-cryptoxanthin and zeaxanthin and enhanced the tolerance to salt, drought and oxidative stresses in the transgenic sweetpotato (cv. Shangshu 19) plants. The genes involved in carotenoid and abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis pathways and abiotic stress responses were up-regulated in the transgenic plants. The ABA and proline contents and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were significantly increased, whereas malonaldehyde (MDA) and H₂O₂ contents were significantly decreased in the transgenic plants under abiotic stresses. The overall results indicate that the IbLCYB2 gene enhances carotenoid contents and abiotic stress tolerance through positive regulation of carotenoid and ABA biosynthesis pathways in sweetpotato. This gene has the potential to improve carotenoid contents and abiotic stress tolerance in sweetpotato and other plants.

Linalool and linalool nerolidol synthases in roses, several genes for little scent

Roses are widely appreciated for the appearance of their flowers and for their fragrance. This latter character results from the combination of different odorant molecules among which monoterpenes are often prevalent constituents. In this study, we report the cloning and characterization of three rose monoterpene synthases. In vitro functional characterization of these enzymes showed that one is a (-)-(3R)-linalool synthase whereas the others have a dual (+)-(3S)-linalool nerolidol synthase activity. However, given that the characterized rose cultivars were only able to produce the (-)-(3R)-linalool stereoisomer, the linalool nerolidol synthases are probably not active in planta. Furthermore, these three enzymes were also characterized by a weak expression level as assessed by RT-qPCR and by the low abundance of the corresponding sequences in an EST library. This characteristic is likely to explain why linalool is generally a minor constituent in rose flowers' scents. On this basis, we propose that in roses the monoterpene biosynthesis effort is focused on the production of acyclic monoterpenes derived from geraniol through the recently characterized Nudix biosynthesis pathway, at the expense of conventional monoterpene biosynthesis via terpene synthases such as linalool or linalool nerolidol synthases.

A global perspective on carotenoids: Metabolism, biotechnology, and benefits for nutrition and health

Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and some non-photosynthetic prokaryotes and fungi. With some notable exceptions, animals (including humans) do not produce carotenoids de novo but take them in their diets. In photosynthetic systems carotenoids are essential for photoprotection against excess light and contribute to light harvesting, but perhaps they are best known for their properties as natural pigments in the yellow to red range. Carotenoids can be associated to fatty acids, sugars, proteins, or other compounds that can change their physical and chemical properties and influence their biological roles. Furthermore, oxidative cleavage of carotenoids produces smaller molecules such as apocarotenoids, some of which are important pigments and volatile (aroma) compounds. Enzymatic breakage of carotenoids can also produce biologically active molecules in both plants (hormones, retrograde signals) and animals (retinoids). Both carotenoids and their enzymatic cleavage products are associated with other processes positively impacting human health. Carotenoids are widely used in the industry as food ingredients, feed additives, and supplements. This review, contributed by scientists of complementary disciplines related to carotenoid research, covers recent advances and provides a perspective on future directions on the subjects of carotenoid metabolism, biotechnology, and nutritional and health benefits.

Phylogeny-dominant classification of J-proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana and Brassica oleracea

Hsp40s or DnaJ/J-proteins are evolutionarily conserved in all organisms as co-chaperones of molecular chaperone HSP70s that mainly participate in maintaining cellular protein homeostasis, such as protein folding, assembly, stabilization, and translocation under normal conditions as well as refolding and degradation under environmental stresses. It has been reported that Arabidopsis J-proteins are classified into four classes (types A-D) according to domain organization, but their phylogenetic relationships are unknown. Here, we identified 129 J-proteins in the world-wide popular vegetable Brassica oleracea, a close relative of the model plant Arabidopsis, and also revised the information of Arabidopsis J-proteins based on the latest online bioresources. According to phylogenetic analysis with domain organization and gene structure as references, the J-proteins from Arabidopsis and B. oleracea were classified into 15 main clades (I-XV) separated by a number of undefined small branches with remote relationship. Based on the number of members, they respectively belong to multigene clades, oligo-gene clades, and mono-gene clades. The J-protein genes from different clades may function together or separately to constitute a complicated regulatory network. This study provides a constructive viewpoint for J-protein classification and an informative platform for further functional dissection and resistant genes discovery related to genetic improvement of crop plants.

Interference with Clp protease impairs carotenoid accumulation during tomato fruit ripening

Profound metabolic and structural changes are required for fleshy green fruits to ripen and become colorful and tasty. In tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), fruit ripening involves the differentiation of chromoplasts, specialized plastids that accumulate carotenoid pigments such as β-carotene (pro-vitamin A) and lycopene. Here, we explored the role of the plastidial Clp protease in chromoplast development and carotenoid accumulation. Ripening-specific silencing of one of the subunits of the Clp proteolytic complex resulted in β-carotene-enriched fruits that appeared orange instead of red when ripe. Clp-defective fruit displayed aberrant chromoplasts and up-regulated expression of nuclear genes encoding the tomato homologs of Orange (OR) and ClpB3 chaperones, most probably to deal with misfolded and aggregated proteins that could not be degraded by the Clp protease. ClpB3 and OR chaperones protect the carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes deoxyxylulose 5-phosphate synthase and phytoene synthase, respectively, from degradation, whereas OR chaperones additionally promote chromoplast differentiation by preventing the degradation of carotenoids such as β-carotene. We conclude that the Clp protease contributes to the differentiation of chloroplasts into chromoplasts during tomato fruit ripening, acting in co-ordination with specific chaperones that alleviate protein folding stress, promote enzyme stability and accumulation, and prevent carotenoid degradation.

Clp Protease and OR Directly Control the Proteostasis of Phytoene Synthase, the Crucial Enzyme for Carotenoid Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis

Phytoene synthase (PSY) is the crucial plastidial enzyme in the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway. However, its post-translational regulation remains elusive. Likewise, Clp protease constitutes a central part of the plastid protease network, but its substrates for degradation are not well known. In this study, we report that PSY is a substrate of the Clp protease. PSY was uncovered to physically interact with various Clp protease subunits (i.e., ClpS1, ClpC1, and ClpD). High levels of PSY and several other carotenogenic enzyme proteins overaccumulate in the clpc1, clpp4, and clpr1-2 mutants. The overaccumulated PSY was found to be partially enzymatically active. Impairment of Clp activity in clpc1 results in a reduced rate of PSY protein turnover, further supporting the role of Clp protease in degrading PSY protein. On the other hand, the ORANGE (OR) protein, a major post-translational regulator of PSY with holdase chaperone activity, enhances PSY protein stability and increases the enzymatically active proportion of PSY in clpc1, counterbalancing Clp-mediated proteolysis in maintaining PSY protein homeostasis. Collectively, these findings provide novel insights into the quality control of plastid-localized proteins and establish a hitherto unidentified post-translational regulatory mechanism of carotenogenic enzymes in modulating carotenoid biosynthesis in plants.

Carotenoid Metabolism in Plants: The Role of Plastids

Carotenoids are indispensable to plants and critical in human diets. Plastids are the organelles for carotenoid biosynthesis and storage in plant cells. They exist in various types, which include proplastids, etioplasts, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, and chromoplasts. These plastids have dramatic differences in their capacity to synthesize and sequester carotenoids. Clearly, plastids play a central role in governing carotenogenic activity, carotenoid stability, and pigment diversity. Understanding of carotenoid metabolism and accumulation in various plastids expands our view on the multifaceted regulation of carotenogenesis and facilitates our efforts toward developing nutrient-enriched food crops. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the impact of various types of plastids on carotenoid biosynthesis and accumulation, and discuss recent advances in our understanding of the regulatory control of carotenogenesis and metabolic engineering of carotenoids in light of plastid types in plants.

Novel DNAJ-related proteins in Arabidopsis thaliana

Classical DNAJ proteins are co-chaperones that together with HSP70s control protein homeostasis. All three classical types of DNAJ proteins (DNAJA, DNAJB and DNAJC types) possess the J-domain for interaction with HSP70. DNAJA proteins contain, in addition, both the zinc-finger motif and the C-terminal domain which are involved in substrate binding, while DNAJB retains only the latter and DNAJC comprises only the J-domain. There is increasing evidence that some of the activities of DNAJ proteins do not require the J-domain, highlighting the functional significance of the other two domains. Indeed, the so-called DNAJ-like proteins with a degenerate J-domain have been previously coined as DNAJD proteins, and also proteins containing only a DNAJ-like zinc-finger motif appear to be involved in protein homeostasis. Therefore, we propose to extend the classification of DNAJ-related proteins into three different groups. The DNAJD type comprises proteins with a J-like domain only, and has 15 members in Arabidopsis thaliana, whereas proteins of the DNAJE (33 Arabidopsis members) and DNAJF (three Arabidopsis members) types contain a DNAJA-like zinc-finger domain and DNAJA/B-like C-terminal domain, respectively. Here, we provide an overview of the entire repertoire of these proteins in A. thaliana with respect to their physiological function and possible evolutionary origin.

Comparative Analysis of Tocopherol Biosynthesis Genes and Its Transcriptional Regulation in Soybean Seeds

Tocopherols composed of four isoforms (α, β, γ, and δ) and its biosynthesis comprises of three pathways: methylerythritol 4-phosphate (MEP), shikimate (SK) and tocopherol-core pathways regulated by 25 enzymes. To understand pathway regulatory mechanism at transcriptional level, gene expression profile of tocopherol-biosynthesis genes in two soybean genotypes was carried out, the results showed significantly differential expression of 5 genes: 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-P-reductoisomerase (DXR), geranyl geranyl reductase (GGDR) from MEP, arogenate dehydrogenase (TyrA), tyrosine aminotransferase (TAT) from SK and γ-tocopherol methyl transferase 3 (γ-TMT3) from tocopherol-core pathways. Expression data were further analyzed for total tocopherol (T-toc) and α-tocopherol (α-toc) content by coregulation network and gene clustering approaches, the results showed least and strong association of γ-TMT3/tocopherol cyclase (TC) and DXR/DXS, respectively, with gene clusters of tocopherol biosynthesis suggested the specific role of γ-TMT3/TC in determining tocopherol accumulation and intricacy of DXR/DXS genes in coordinating precursor pathways toward tocopherol biosynthesis in soybean seeds. Thus, the present study provides insight into the major role of these genes regulating the tocopherol synthesis in soybean seeds.