Growth arrest in human T-cells is controlled by the non-coding RNA growth-arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5)

A Comprehensive Review of Long Non-Coding RNAs in the Cancer-Immunity Cycle: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Implications

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as pivotal regulators of the dynamic interplay between cancer progression and immune responses. This review explored their influence on key processes of the cancer-immunity cycle, such as immune cell differentiation, antigen presentation, and tumor immunogenicity. By modulating tumor escape from the immune response, therapeutic resistance, and tumor-stroma interactions, lncRNAs actively shape the tumor microenvironment. Due to their growing knowledge in the area of immune suppression, directly intervening in the induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs), M2 macrophages, and regulating immune checkpoint pathways such as PD-L1, CTLA-4, and others, lncRNAs can be considered promising therapeutic targets. Advances in single-cell technologies and immunotherapy have significantly expanded our understanding of lncRNA-driven regulatory networks, paving the way for novel precision medicine approaches. Ultimately, we discussed how targeting lncRNAs could enhance cancer immunotherapy, offering new avenues for biomarker discovery and therapeutic intervention.

Epigenetic Regulation by lncRNA GAS5/miRNA/mRNA Network in Human Diseases

The interplay between long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) is crucial in the epigenetic regulation of mRNA and protein expression, impacting the development and progression of a plethora of human diseases, such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory-associated diseases, and viral infection. Among the many lncRNAs, growth arrest-specific 5 (GAS5) has garnered substantial attention for its evident role in the regulation of significant biological processes such as proliferation, differentiation, senescence, and apoptosis. Through miRNA-mediated signaling pathways, GAS5 modulates disease progression in a cell-type-specific manner, typically by influencing proteins involved in inflammation and cell death. While GAS5 is recognized as a tumor suppressor in cancer, recent reports highlight its broader regulatory capacity in non-cancerous diseases. Its modulation of protein expression through the GAS5/miRNA network has been shown to both mitigate and exacerbate disease, depending on the specific context. Furthermore, the therapeutic potential of GAS5 manipulation, via knockdown or overexpression, offers promising avenues for targeted interventions across human diseases. This review explores the dualistic impacts of the GAS5/miRNA network in conditions such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, viral infections, and inflammatory disorders. Through the evaluation of current evidence, we aim to provide insight into GAS5's biological functions and its implications for future research and therapeutic development.

Biological functions and affected signaling pathways by Long Non-Coding RNAs in the immune system

Recently, the various regulative functions of long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) have been well determined. Recently, the vital role of LncRNAs as gene regulators has been identified in the immune system, especially in the inflammatory response. All cells of the immune system are governed by a complex and ever-changing gene expression program that is regulated through both transcriptional and post-transcriptional processes. LncRNAs regulate gene expression within the cell nucleus by influencing transcription or through post-transcriptional processes that affect the splicing, stability, or translation of messenger RNAs (mRNAs). Recent studies in immunology have revealed substantial alterations in the expression of lncRNAs during the activation of the innate immune system as well as the development, differentiation, and activation of T cells. These lncRNAs regulate key aspects of immune function, including the manufacturing of inflammatory molecules, cellular distinction, and cell movement. They do this by modulating protein-protein interactions or through base pairing with RNA and DNA. Here we review the current understanding of the mechanism of action of lncRNAs as novel immune-related regulators and their impact on physiological and pathological processes related to the immune system, including autoimmune diseases. We also highlight the emerging pattern of gene expression control in important research areas at the intersection between immunology and lncRNA biology.

Lung cancer cell-derived exosomes: progress on pivotal role and its application in diagnostic and therapeutic potential

Lung cancer is frequently detected in an advanced stage and has an unfavourable prognosis. Conventional therapies are ineffective for the treatment of metastatic lung cancer. While certain molecular targets have been identified as having a positive response, the absence of appropriate drug carriers prevents their effective utilization. Lung cancer cell-derived exosomes (LCCDEs) have gained attention for their involvement in the development of cancer, as well as their potential for use in diagnosing, treating, and predicting the outcome of lung cancer. This is due to their biological roles and their inherent ability to transport biomolecules from the donor cells. Lung cancer-associated cell-derived extracellular vesicles (LCCDEVs) have the ability to enhance cell proliferation and metastasis, influence angiogenesis, regulate immune responses against tumours during the development of lung cancer, control drug resistance in lung cancer treatment, and are increasingly recognised as a crucial element in liquid biopsy evaluations for the detection of lung cancer. Therapeutic exosomes, which possess inherent intercellular communication capabilities, are increasingly recognised as effective vehicles for targeted drug delivery in precision medicine for tumours. This is due to their exceptional biocompatibility, minimal immunogenicity, low toxicity, prolonged circulation in the bloodstream, biodegradability, and ability to traverse different biological barriers. Currently, multiple studies are being conducted to create new means of diagnosing and predicting outcomes using LCCDEs, as well as to develop techniques for utilizing exosomes as effective carriers for medication delivery. This paper provides an overview of the current state of lung cancer and the wide range of applications of LCCDEs. The encouraging findings and technologies suggest that the utilization of LCCDEs holds promise for the clinical treatment of lung cancer patients.

Unraveling the ncRNA landscape that governs colorectal cancer: A roadmap to personalized therapeutics

Colorectal cancer (CRC) being one of the most common malignancies, has a significant death rate, especially when detected at an advanced stage. In most cases, the fundamental aetiology of CRC remains unclear despite the identification of several environmental and intrinsic risk factors. Numerous investigations, particularly in the last ten years, have indicated the involvement of epigenetic variables in this type of cancer. The development, progression, and metastasis of CRC are influenced by long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which are significant players in the epigenetic pathways. LncRNAs are implicated in diverse pathological processes in CRC, such as liver metastasis, epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT), inflammation, and chemo-/radioresistance. It has recently been determined that CRC cells and tissues exhibit dysregulation of tens of oncogenic and tumor suppressor lncRNAs. Serum samples from CRC patients exhibit dysregulated expressions of several of these transcripts, offering a non-invasive method of detecting this kind of cancer. In this review, we outlined the typical paradigms of the deregulated lncRNA which exert significant role in the underlying molecular mechanisms of CRC initiation and progression. We comprehensively discuss the role of lncRNAs as innovative targets for CRC prognosis and treatment.

Non-Coding RNAs in Myasthenia Gravis: From Immune Regulation to Personalized Medicine

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an antibody-mediated autoimmune disorder characterized by altered neuromuscular transmission, which causes weakness and fatigability in the skeletal muscles. The etiology of MG is complex, being associated with multiple genetic and environmental factors. Over recent years, progress has been made in understanding the immunological alterations implicated in the disease, but the exact pathogenesis still needs to be elucidated. A pathogenic interplay between innate immunity and autoimmunity contributes to the intra-thymic MG development. Epigenetic changes are critically involved in both innate and adaptive immune response regulation. They can act as (i) pathological factors besides genetic predisposition and (ii) co-factors contributing to disease phenotypes or patient-specific disease course/outcomes. This article reviews the role of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) as epigenetic factors implicated in MG. Particular attention is dedicated to microRNAs (miRNAs), whose expression is altered in MG patients' thymuses and circulating blood. The long ncRNA (lncRNA) contribution to MG, although not fully characterized yet, is also discussed. By summarizing the most recent and fast-growing findings on ncRNAs in MG, we highlight the therapeutic potential of these molecules for achieving immune regulation and their value as biomarkers for the development of personalized medicine approaches to improve disease care.

Exploring potential roles of long non-coding RNAs in cancer immunotherapy: a comprehensive review

Cancer treatment has long been fraught with challenges, including drug resistance, metastasis, and recurrence, making it one of the most difficult diseases to treat effectively. Traditional therapeutic approaches often fall short due to their inability to target cancer stem cells and the complex genetic and epigenetic landscape of tumors. In recent years, cancer immunotherapy has revolutionized the field, offering new hope and viable alternatives to conventional treatments. A particularly promising area of research focuses on non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), especially long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and their role in cancer resistance and the modulation of signaling pathways. To address these challenges, we performed a comprehensive review of recent studies on lncRNAs and their impact on cancer immunotherapy. Our review highlights the crucial roles that lncRNAs play in affecting both innate and adaptive immunity, thereby influencing the outcomes of cancer treatments. Key observations from our review indicate that lncRNAs can modify the tumor immune microenvironment, enhance immune cell infiltration, and regulate cytokine production, all of which contribute to tumor growth and resistance to therapies. These insights suggest that lncRNAs could serve as potential targets for precision medicine, opening up new avenues for developing more effective cancer immunotherapies. By compiling recent research on lncRNAs across various cancers, this review aims to shed light on their mechanisms within the tumor immune microenvironment.

GAS5: A pivotal lncRNA in diabetes mellitus pathogenesis and management

The long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), GAS5, has garnered significant attention recently for its multifaceted involvement in cellular processes, particularly within the context of diabetes. This comprehensive review delves into the intricate molecular interactions associated with GAS5 and their profound implications for understanding, diagnosing, and effectively managing diabetes mellitus. The article begins by highlighting the global prevalence of diabetes and the urgent need for innovative insights into its underlying mechanisms and therapeutic approaches. It introduces GAS5 as a crucial regulator of gene expression, with emerging significance in the context of diabetes-related processes. The core of this review unravels the regulatory network of GAS5 in diabetes, elucidating its impact on various aspects of the disease. It explores how GAS5 influences insulin signaling pathways, glucose metabolism, and the function of β-cells, shedding light on its role in hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. Moreover, the article underscores the clinical relevance of GAS5's interactions by discussing their associations with different diabetes subtypes, predictive value, and potential applications as both diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets. It provides insights into ongoing research endeavours aimed at harnessing the potential of GAS5 for innovative disease management strategies, including the development of RNA-based therapeutics. Concluding with a forward-looking perspective, the abstract highlights the broader implications of GAS5 in the field of diabetes, such as its connection to diabetic complications and its potential for personalized approaches in disease management.

Emerging roles of SnoRNAs in the pathogenesis and treatment of autoimmune disorders

SnoRNAs (small non-coding RNAs) have recently gained prominence in autoimmune diseases, revealing their crucial role in modulating the immune response and contributing to disease pathogenesis. Initially known for their involvement in ribosomal RNA processing and modification, molecular biology and genomics advancements have uncovered their broader impact on cellular function, especially in autoimmune disorders. Autoimmune diseases represent conditions characterized by the immune system's erroneous attacks on self-tissues, encompassing disorders like systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis. The complex etiology of these conditions involves a delicate interplay of genetic and environmental factors. Emerging evidence suggests that snoRNAs initially recognized for their housekeeping roles, extend their influence on immune regulation through diverse mechanisms. SnoRNAs have been implicated in epigenetic modification, directly affecting the gene expression profiles of immune cells. Their ability to guide site-specific changes on ribosomal RNAs and other non-coding RNAs can significantly influence the translation of proteins involved in immune response pathways. Moreover, snoRNAs interact with key immune-related proteins, modulating their functions and subsequently impacting immune cell development, activation, and tolerance. Dysregulation of snoRNA expression has been observed in various autoimmune diseases, underscoring their potential as biomarkers for disease diagnosis, prognosis, and therapeutic targets. Manipulating snoRNA expression or activity is a promising therapeutic intervention avenue, offering the potential for personalized treatment strategies in autoimmune diseases. However, there remains a need for comprehensive research efforts to elucidate the precise molecular mechanisms underlying snoRNA-mediated immune modulation. Further investigations in this domain are essential to unravel the potential of snoRNAs in autoimmune disorders.

Noncoding snoRNA host genes are a distinct subclass of long noncoding RNAs

Mammalian genomes are pervasively transcribed into different noncoding (nc)RNA classes, each one with its own hallmarks and exceptions. Some of them are nested into each other, such as host genes for small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs), which were long believed to simply act as molecular containers strictly facilitating snoRNA biogenesis. However, recent findings show that noncoding snoRNA host genes (ncSNHGs) display features different from those of 'regular' long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and, more importantly, they can exert independent and unrelated functions to those of the encoded snoRNAs. Here, we review and summarize past and recent evidence that ncSNHGs form a defined subclass among the plethora of lncRNAs, and discuss future research that can further elucidate their biological relevance.

Elsayed A, López-Berestein G, Amero P, Rodríguez-Aguayo C. An Overview of the Immune Modulatory Properties of Long Non-Coding RNAs and Their Potential Use as Therapeutic Targets in Cancer

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) play pivotal roles in regulating immune responses, immune cell differentiation, activation, and inflammatory processes. In cancer, they are gaining prominence as potential therapeutic targets due to their ability to regulate immune checkpoint molecules and immune-related factors, suggesting avenues for bolstering anti-tumor immune responses. Here, we explore the mechanistic insights into lncRNA-mediated immune modulation, highlighting their impact on immunity. Additionally, we discuss their potential to enhance cancer immunotherapy, augmenting the effectiveness of immune checkpoint inhibitors and adoptive T cell therapies. LncRNAs as therapeutic targets hold the promise of revolutionizing cancer treatments, inspiring further research in this field with substantial clinical implications.

Recent progress in the immunotherapy of hepatocellular carcinoma: Non-coding RNA-based immunotherapy may improve the outcome

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the second most lethal cancer and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) significantly improved the prognosis of HCC; however, the therapeutic response remains unsatisfactory in a substantial proportion of patients or needs to be further improved in responders. Herein, other methods of immunotherapy, including vaccine-based immunotherapy, adoptive cell therapy, cytokine delivery, kynurenine pathway inhibition, and gene delivery, have been adopted in clinical trials. Although the results were not encouraging enough to expedite their marketing. A major proportion of human genome is transcribed into non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Preclinical studies have extensively investigated the roles of ncRNAs in different aspects of HCC biology. HCC cells reprogram the expression pattern of numerous ncRNAs to decrease the immunogenicity of HCC, exhaust the cytotoxic and anti-cancer function of CD8 + T cells, natural killer (NK) cells, dendritic cells (DCs), and M1 macrophages, and promote the immunosuppressive function of T Reg cells, M2 macrophages, and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs). Mechanistically, cancer cells recruit ncRNAs to interact with immune cells, thereby regulating the expression of immune checkpoints, functional receptors of immune cells, cytotoxic enzymes, and inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Interestingly, prediction models based on the tissue expression or even serum levels of ncRNAs could predict response to immunotherapy in HCC. Moreover, ncRNAs markedly potentiated the efficacy of ICIs in murine models of HCC. This review article first discusses recent advances in the immunotherapy of HCC, then dissects the involvement and potential application of ncRNAs in the immunotherapy of HCC.

Exosomal lncRNA GAS5 promotes M1 macrophage polarization in allergic rhinitis via restraining mTORC1/ULK1/ATG13-mediated autophagy and subsequently activating NF-кB signaling

Macrophages are involved in the pathogenesis of allergic rhinitis (AR), but how these macrophages are polarized to M1 or M2 type is undetermined. Long non-coding RNA growth arrest specific transcript 5 (GAS5) is upregulated in exosomes isolated from nasal mucus of AR patients (AR-EXO) and aggravates nasal symptoms in AR mice. In the present study, we are aimed to elucidate the potential role of GAS5 in macrophage polarization during AR pathogenesis. An AR mice model was constructed. The potential function of GAS5 was evaluated by western blot, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), biotinylated RNA pull-down assay, co-immunoprecipitation (co-IP) assay, flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assay, and immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining. We found that GAS5 is upregulated in ovalbumin-treated human nasal epithelial cells RPMI 2650 (OVA-EXO) and nasal mucus of AR mice. OVA-EXO treatment or forced GAS5 expression promoted M1 macrophage polarization of peripheral blood monocytes (PB monocytes) and THP-1 macrophages in vitro. GAS5 overexpression aggravated the allergic nasal symptoms induced by OVA in AR mice and facilitated M1 macrophage polarization and allergic inflammation, while knockdown of GAS5 exhibited opposite effects in vivo. GAS5 activated NF-кB signaling via suppressing autophagy-dependent degradation of IKKα/β in macrophages. Furthermore, GAS5 acted as a scaffold to strengthen the interaction between mTORC1 and ULK1, thus impaired ULK1/ATG13-mediated autophagy via increasing mTORC1 activity. Finally, restored autophagy by ATG13 overexpression suppressed the effect of GAS5 on M1 macrophage polarization. In conclusion, these results suggested that exosomal transfer of GAS5 promoted M1 macrophage polarization via restraining mTORC1/ULK1/ATG13-mediated autophagy and subsequently activating NF-кB signaling in allergic rhinitis.

Comprehensive investigation of the expression profiles of common long noncoding RNAs during microglial activation

Microglia, similar to peripheral macrophages, are the primary immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia exist in the resting state in the healthy CNS, but can be activated and polarized into either M1 or M2 subtypes for immune defense and the maintenance of CNS homeostasis by multiple stimuli. Several long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) mediate human inflammatory diseases and neuropathologies by regulating their target genes. However, the function of common lncRNAs that contribute to microglial activation remains unclear. Thus, we used bioinformatic approaches to identify common lncRNAs involved in microglial activation in vitro. Our study identified several lncRNAs as common regulators of microglial activation. We identified 283 common mRNAs and 53 common lncRNAs during mouse M1 microglial activation processes, whereas 26 common mRNAs and five common lncRNAs were identified during mouse M2 microglial activation processes. A total of 648 common mRNAs and 274 common lncRNAs were identified during the activation of human M1 microglia. In addition, we identified 1,920 common co-expressed pairs in mouse M1 activation processes and 25 common co-expressed pairs in mouse M2 activation processes. Our study provides a comprehensive understanding of common lncRNA expression profiles in microglial activation processes in vitro. The list of common lncRNAs identified in this study provides novel evidence and clues regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying microglial activation.

Non-coding RNAs in immunoregulation and autoimmunity: Technological advances and critical limitations

Immune cell function is critically dependent on precise control over transcriptional output from the genome. In this respect, integration of environmental signals that regulate gene expression, specifically by transcription factors, enhancer DNA elements, genome topography and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), are key components. The first three have been extensively investigated. Even though non-coding RNAs represent the vast majority of cellular RNA species, this class of RNA remains historically understudied. This is partly because of a lag in technological and bioinformatic innovations specifically capable of identifying and accurately measuring their expression. Nevertheless, recent progress in this domain has enabled a profusion of publications identifying novel sub-types of ncRNAs and studies directly addressing the function of ncRNAs in human health and disease. Many ncRNAs, including circular and enhancer RNAs, have now been demonstrated to play key functions in the regulation of immune cells and to show associations with immune-mediated diseases. Some ncRNAs may function as biomarkers of disease, aiding in diagnostics and in estimating response to treatment, while others may play a direct role in the pathogenesis of disease. Importantly, some are relatively stable and are amenable to therapeutic targeting, for example through gene therapy. Here, we provide an overview of ncRNAs and review technological advances that enable their study and hold substantial promise for the future. We provide context-specific examples by examining the associations of ncRNAs with four prototypical human autoimmune diseases, specifically rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, inflammatory bowel disease and multiple sclerosis. We anticipate that the utility and mechanistic roles of these ncRNAs in autoimmunity will be further elucidated in the near future.

Molecular subtypes and a prognostic model for hepatocellular carcinoma based on immune- and immunogenic cell death-related lncRNAs

Background

Accumulating evidence shows that immunogenic cell death (ICD) enhances immunotherapy effectiveness. In this study, we aimed to develop a prognostic model combining ICD, immunity, and long non-coding RNA biomarkers for predicting hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) outcomes.

Methods

Immune- and immunogenic cell death-related lncRNAs (IICDLs) were identified from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Ensembl databases. IICDLs were extracted based on the results of differential expression and univariate Cox analyses and used to generate molecular subtypes using ConsensusClusterPlus. We created a prognostic signature based on IICDLs and a nomogram based on risk scores. Clinical characteristics, immune landscapes, immune checkpoint blocking (ICB) responses, stemness, and chemotherapy responses were also analyzed for different molecular subtypes and risk groups.

Result

A total of 81 IICDLs were identified, 20 of which were significantly associated with overall survival (OS) in patients with HCC. Cluster analysis divided patients with HCC into two distinct molecular subtypes (C1 and C2), with patients in C1 having a shorter survival time than those in C2. Four IICDLs (TMEM220-AS1, LINC02362, LINC01554, and LINC02499) were selected to develop a prognostic model that was an independent prognostic factor of HCC outcomes. C1 and the high-risk group had worse OS (hazard ratio > 1.5, p < 0.01), higher T stage (p < 0.05), higher clinical stage (p < 0.05), higher pathological grade (p < 0.05), low immune cell infiltration (CD4⁺ T cells, B cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and myeloid dendritic cells), low immune checkpoint gene expression, poor response to ICB therapy, and high stemness. Different molecular subtypes and risk groups showed significantly different responses to several chemotherapy drugs, such as doxorubicin (p < 0.001), 5-fluorouracil (p < 0.001), gemcitabine (p < 0.001), and sorafenib (p < 0.01).

Conclusion

Our study identified molecular subtypes and a prognostic signature based on IICDLs that could help predict the clinical prognosis and treatment response in patients with HCC.

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) in HIV-mediated carcinogenesis: Role in cell homeostasis, cell survival processes and drug resistance

There is accruing data implicating long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the development and progression of non-communicable diseases such as cancer. These lncRNAs have been implicated in many diverse HIV-host interactions, some of which are beneficial to HIV propagation. The virus-host interactions induce the expression of HIV-regulated long non-coding RNAs, which are implicated in the carcinogenesis process, therefore, it is critical to understand the molecular mechanisms that underpin these HIV-regulated lncRNAs, especially in cancer formation. Herein, we summarize the role of HIV-regulated lncRNAs targeting cancer development-related processes including apoptosis, cell cycle, cell survival signalling, angiogenesis and drug resistance. It is unclear how lncRNAs regulate cancer development, this review also discuss recent discoveries regarding the functions of lncRNAs in cancer biology. Innovative research in this field will be beneficial for the future development of therapeutic strategies targeting long non-coding RNAs that are regulated by HIV, especially in HIV associated cancers.

LncRNA Expression Profiles in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Rheumatoid Arthritis: Emerging Biomarkers and Therapeutic Targets

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) are two common multisystem autoimmune diseases that share, among others, many clinical manifestations and serological features. The role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) has been of particular interest in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases. Here, we aimed to summarize the roles of lncRNAs as emerging novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets in SLE and RA. We conducted a narrative review summarizing original articles on lncRNAs associated with SLE and RA, published until November 1, 2021. Based on the studies on lncRNA expression profiles in samples (including PBMCs, serum, and exosomes), it was noted that most of the current research is focused on investigating the regulatory mechanisms of these lncRNAs in SLE and/or RA. Several lncRNAs have been hypothesized to play key roles in these diseases. In SLE, lncRNAs such as GAS5, NEAT1, TUG1, linc0949, and linc0597 are dysregulated and may serve as emerging novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets. In RA, many validated lncRNAs, such as HOTAIR, GAS5, and HIX003209, have been identified as promising novel biomarkers for both diagnosis and treatment. The shared lncRNAs, for example, GAS5, may participate in SLE pathogenesis through the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and trigger the AMP-activated protein kinase pathway in RA. Here, we summarize the data on key lncRNAs that may drive the pathogenesis of SLE and RA and could potentially serve as emerging novel biomarkers and therapeutic targets in the coming future.

Evolving Views of Long Noncoding RNAs and Epigenomic Control of Lymphocyte State and Memory

Not simply an attribute of the adaptive immune system, immunological memory can be viewed on multiple levels. Accordingly, the molecular basis of memory comprises multiple mechanisms. The advent of new sequencing technologies has greatly enhanced the understanding of gene regulation and lymphocyte specification, and improved measurement of chromatin states affords new insights into the epigenomic and transcriptomic programs that underlie memory. Beyond canonical genes, the involvement of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) is becoming increasingly apparent, and it appears that there are more than two to three times as many lncRNAs as protein-coding genes. lncRNAs can directly interact with DNA, RNA, and proteins, and a single lncRNA can contain multiple modular domains and thus interact with different classes of molecules. Yet, most lncRNAs have not been tested for function, and even fewer knockout mice have been generated. It is therefore timely to consider new potential mechanisms that may contribute to immune memory.

Long non-coding RNA GAS5 inhibits osteogenic differentiation through miR-382-3p/TAF1 signaling

Background: Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been confirmed as important regulators during osteogenic differentiation. Previous researches have disclosed that growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) can promote the osteogenic differentiation of human bone marrow mesenchyml stem cells (hBMSCs), but the underlying regulatory mechanism of GAS5 during the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs is unclear. Methods: Osteogenic differentiation was induced in hBMSCs by using osteogenic medium (OM). Gene expression was assessed by RT-qPCR or western blot assays as needed. ALP activity, ALP staining and ARS staining assays were performed to evaluate the impact of GAS5, microRNA-382-3p (miR-382-3p) and TATA-box binding protein associated factor 1 (TAF1) on osteogenic differentiation in vitro. The interaction among GAS5, miR-382-3p and TAF1 was determined by RIP, ChIP and luciferase reporter assays. Results: Expression of GAS5 (transcript variant 2) was down-regulated during the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs and its overexpression retarded the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs. GAS5 inhibited miR-382-3p through targeting RNA-directed microRNA degradation (TDMD). MiR-382-3p down-regulation partially offset the promoted osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs upon GAS5 silencing. TAF1 negatively modulated osteogenic differentiation and it activated GAS5 transcription so as to form a positive GAS5/miR-382-3p/TAF1 feedback loop in hBMSCs. Conclusion: This research was the first to reveal that the GAS5/miR-382-3p/TAF1 feedback loop inhibited the osteogenic differentiation of hBMSCs, which provided new clues for exploring the mechanism of osteogenic differentiation and disclosed the potential of GAS5 as a promising target during osteogenic differentiation.

Overexpression of the GR Riborepressor LncRNA GAS5 Results in Poor Treatment Response and Early Relapse in Childhood B-ALL

Glucocorticoids (GCs) remain the cornerstone of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (chALL) therapy, exerting their cytotoxic effects through binding and activating of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR). GAS5 lncRNA acts as a potent riborepressor of GR transcriptional activity, and thus targeting GAS5 in GC-treated chALL could provide further insights into GC resistance and support personalized treatment decisions. Herein, to study the clinical utility of GAS5 in chALL prognosis and chemotherapy response, GAS5 expression was quantified by RT-qPCR in bone marrow samples of chB-ALL patients at diagnosis (n = 164) and at end-of-induction (n = 109), treated with ALL-BFM protocol. Patients' relapse and death were used as clinical end-points for survival analysis. Bootstrap analysis was performed for internal validation, and decision curve analysis assessed the clinical net benefit for chALL prognosis. Our findings demonstrated the elevated GAS5 levels in blasts of chALL patients compared to controls and the significantly higher risk for short-term relapse and poor treatment outcome of patients overexpressing GAS5, independently of their clinicopathological data. The unfavorable prognostic value of GAS5 overexpression was strongly validated in the high-risk/stem-cell transplantation subgroup. Finally, multivariate models incorporating GAS5 levels resulted in superior risk stratification and clinical benefit for chALL prognostication, supporting personalized prognosis and precision medicine decisions in chALL.

Long Non-Coding RNAs in Oral Submucous Fibrosis: Their Functional Mechanisms and Recent Research Progress

Many studies have shown that most genomes are transcribed into non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which can affect different cell characteristics. LncRNAs are long heterologous RNAs that regulate gene expression and various signaling pathways during homeostasis and development. Studies have shown that a lncRNA is an important regulatory molecule that can be targeted to change the physiology and function of cells. Expression or dysfunction of lncRNAs is closely related to various genetic, autoimmune, and metabolic diseases. The importance of ncRNAs in oral submucosal fibrosis (OSF) has garnered much attention in recent years. However, most research has focused on miRs. The role of these molecules in OSF is incompletely understood. This review focuses on the emerging role and function of lncRNAs in OSF as novel regulators. Finally, the potential functional role of lncRNAs as biomarkers for OSF diagnosis is also described. LncRNAs are expected to become a new therapeutic target, but more research is needed to understand their biological functions more deeply.

Structural insights into glucocorticoid receptor function

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is a steroid hormone-activated transcription factor that binds to various glucocorticoid response elements to up- or down- regulate the transcription of thousands of genes involved in metabolism, development, stress and inflammatory responses. GR consists of two domains enabling interaction with glucocorticoids, DNA response elements and coregulators, as well as a large intrinsically disordered region that mediates condensate formation. A growing body of structural studies during the past decade have shed new light on GR interactions, providing a new understanding of the mechanisms driving context-specific GR activity. Here, we summarize the established and emerging mechanisms of action of GR, primarily from a structural perspective. This minireview also discusses how the current state of knowledge of GR function may guide future glucocorticoid design with an improved therapeutic index for different inflammatory disorders.

A Novel Long Noncoding RNA lincRNA00892 Activates CD4+ T Cells in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus by Regulating CD40L

Objective: The mechanism of CD4⁺ T-cell dysfunction in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) has not been fully understood. Increasing evidence show that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) can regulate immune responses and take part in some autoimmune diseases, while little is known about the lncRNA expression and function in CD4⁺ T of SLE. Here, we aimed to detect the expression profile of lncRNAs in lupus CD4⁺ T cells and explore the mechanism that how lincRNA00892 in CD4⁺ T cells is involved in the pathogenesis of SLE. Methods: The expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in CD4⁺ T cells from SLE patients and healthy controls were detected by microarray. LincRNA00892 and CD40L were chosen for validation by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Coexpression network was conducted to predict the potential target genes of lincRNA00892. Then lincRNA00892 was overexpressed in normal CD4⁺ T cells via lentivirus transfection. The expression of lincRNA00892 was detected by qRT-PCR. The expression of CD40L was detected by qRT-PCR, western blotting, and flow cytometry, respectively. The expression of CD69 and CD23 was measured by flow cytometry. The secretion of IgG was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The proteins targeted by lincRNA00892 were measured by RNA pulldown and subsequent mass spectrometry (MS). The interaction between heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K (hnRNP K) and lincRNA00892 or CD40L was detected by RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assay. Results: A total of 1887 lncRNAs and 3375 mRNAs were found to be aberrantly expressed in CD4⁺ T cells of SLE patients compared to healthy controls. LincRNA00892 and CD40L were confirmed to be upregulated in CD4⁺ T cells of SLE patients by qRT-PCR. The lncRNA-mRNA coexpression network analysis indicated that CD40L was a potential target of lincRNA00892. Overexpression of lincRNA00892 enhanced CD40L protein levels while exerting little influence on CD40L mRNA levels in CD4⁺ T cells. In addition, lincRNA00892 could induce the activation of CD4⁺ T cells. Furthermore, lincRNA00892 led to the activation of B cells and subsequent secretion of IgG in a CD4⁺ T-cell-dependent manner. Finally, hnRNP K was found to be among the proteins pulled down by lincRNA00892, and hnRNP K could bind to lincRNA00892 or CD40L directly. Conclusion: Our results showed that the lncRNA expression profile was altered in CD4⁺ T cells of SLE. LincRNA00892 possibly contributed to the pathogenesis of SLE by targeting hnRNP K and subsequently upregulating CD40L expression to activate CD4⁺ T and B cells. These provided us a potential target for further mechanistic studies of SLE pathogenesis.

Small nucleolar RNA is potential as a novel player in leukemogenesis and clinical application

Lack of clarity of the mechanisms that underlie leukemogenesis obstructs the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of leukemia. Research has found that small nuclear RNA (snoRNA) plays an essential role in leukemia. These small non-coding RNAs are involved in ribosome biogenesis, including the 2′-O-methylation and pseudouridylation of precursor ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA), and pre-rRNA splicing. Recently, many snoRNAs were found to be orphans that have no predictable RNA modification targets, but these RNAs have always been found to be located in different subcellular organelles, and they play diverse roles. Using high-throughput technology, snoRNA expression profiles have been revealed in leukemia, and some of the deregulated snoRNAs may regulate the cell cycle, differentiation, proliferation, and apoptosis in leukemic cells and confer drug resistance during leukemia treatment. In this review, we discuss the expression profiles and functions of snoRNAs, particularly orphan snoRNAs, in leukemia. It is possible that the dysregulated snoRNAs are promising diagnosis and prognosis markers for leukemia, which may serve as potential therapeutic targets in leukemia treatment.

lncRNA NORAD is consistently detected in breastmilk exosomes and its expression is downregulated in mothers of preterm infants

Breast milk is the ideal food for infants and undoubtedly has immediate and long-term benefits. Breast milk contains extracellular vesicles (EVs) i.e., exosomes secreted by maternal breast cells. Exosomes carry genetic material, such as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which possibly participate in cell-to-cell communications, as they are known to regulate critical gene pathways. The aim of the present study was to screen human breastmilk exosomes for their lncRNA cargo and to examine exosomal lncRNA levels associated with milk obtained from mothers that gave birth at term or prematurely (<37 weeks of gestation). Samples were collected at 3 weeks postpartum from 20 healthy, breastfeeding mothers; 10 mothers had given birth at full-term and 10 mothers preterm. Exosomal RNA was extracted from all samples and the expression of 88 distinct lncRNAs was determined using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. A total of 13 lncRNAs were detected in ≥85% of the samples, while 31 were detected in ≥50% of the samples. Differential expression analysis of the lncRNAs between the two groups revealed ≥2-fold differences, with generally higher lncRNA concentrations found in the milk of the mothers that gave birth at term compared with those that gave birth preterm. Among these, the non-coding RNA activated at DNA damage (NORAD) was prominently detected in both groups, and its expression was significantly downregulated in the breast milk exosomes of mothers who delivered preterm. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that breast milk lncRNAs may be important factors of normal early human development. Collectively, the presence of lncRNAs in human breast milk may explain the consistent inability of researchers to fully 'humanize' animal milk.

GAS5 rs2067079 and miR-137 rs1625579 functional SNPs and risk of chronic hepatitis B virus infection among Egyptian patients

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a significant health issue worldwide.. We attempted to fulfill the molecular mechanisms of epigenetic and genetic factors associated with chronic HBV (CHBV). Expression levels of the lncRNA growth arrest-specific 5 (GAS5) and miR-137 and their corresponding SNPs, rs2067079 (C/T) and rs1625579 (G/T) were analyzed in 117 CHBV patients and 120 controls to investigate the probable association between these biomarkers and CHBV pathogenesis in the Egyptian population. Serum expression levels of GAS5 and miR-137 were significantly down-regulated in cases vs controls. Regarding GAS5 (rs2067079), the mutant TT genotype showed an increased risk of CHBV (p < 0.001), while the dominant CC was a protective factor (p = 0.004). Regarding miR-137 rs1625579, the mutant genotype TT was reported as a risk factor for CHBV (p < 0.001) and the normal GG genotype was a protective factor, p < 0.001. The serum GAS5 was significantly higher in the mutant TT genotype of GAS5 SNP as compared to the other genotypes (p = 0.007). Concerning miR-137 rs1625579, the mutant TT genotype was significantly associated with a lower serum expression level of miR-137 (p = 0.018). We revealed the dysregulated expression levels of GAS5 and miR-137 linked to their functioning SNPs were associated with CHBV risk and might act as potential therapeutic targets.

SnoRNA in Cancer Progression, Metastasis and Immunotherapy Response

Simple Summary

A much larger number of small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) have been found encoded within our genomes than we ever expected to see. The activities of the snoRNAs were thought restricted to the nucleolus, where they were first discovered. Now, however, their significant number suggests that their functions are more diverse. Studies in cancers have shown snoRNA levels to associate with different stages of disease progression, including with metastasis. In addition, relationships between snoRNA levels and response to immunotherapies, have been reported. Emerging technologies now allow snoRNA to be targeted directly in cancers, and the therapeutic value of this is being explored.

Abstract

Small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) were one of our earliest recognised classes of non-coding RNA, but were largely ignored by cancer investigators due to an assumption that their activities were confined to the nucleolus. However, as full genome sequences have become available, many new snoRNA genes have been identified, and multiple studies have shown their functions to be diverse. The consensus now is that many snoRNA are dysregulated in cancers, are differentially expressed between cancer types, stages and metastases, and they can actively modify disease progression. In addition, the regulation of the snoRNA class is dominated by the cancer-supporting mTOR signalling pathway, and they may have particular significance to immune cell function and anti-tumour immune responses. Given the recent advent of therapeutics that can target RNA molecules, snoRNA have robust potential as drug targets, either solely or in the context of immunotherapies.

Lower growth arrest-specific 5 level in endometrium is related to endometriosis via promoting cell proliferation and angiogenesis

Long noncoding RNAs are a group of more than 200 nt, nonprotein coding RNAs, some of which are dysregulated in many pathophysiological processes including endometriosis. This study aims to clarify the roles of dysregulated growth arrest-specific 5 (GAS5) in patients with endometriosis, and unveil the underlying mechanisms. We obtained endometrium samples from 37 patients with endometriosis and 23 controls without endometriosis. Primary endometrial stromal cells (ESCs) and endothelial cells were separated from the endometrium. Levels of GAS5 were quantified using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and levels of p27, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved poly (ADP-Ribose) polymerase 1, vascular endothelial growth factor A, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 3 (TIMP3), and trypsin-modified soy protein 10 were assessed by immunoblotting. Cell viability was examined using MTT assays, and the cell cycle and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry. Endothelial cell tube formation capacity was assayed in vitro. GAS5 and p27 levels were found lower in the endometrium samples from patients with endometriosis. Primary ESCs from patients with endometriosis had increased viability, reduced apoptosis, and a relatively uncontrolled cell cycle. Gain- and loss-of-function studies confirmed that GAS5 regulated p27 expression in ESCs. Furthermore, GAS5 level was relatively low in primary endothelial cells from patients with endometriosis and GAS5 acted as an angiogenesis inhibitor by regulating the miR-181c-TIMP3 axis. Thus, lower GAS5 level in endometrium might be related to endometriosis by regulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle, and angiogenesis.

Non-coding RNAs in cardiac inflammation: key drivers in the pathophysiology of heart failure

Heart failure is among the most progressive diseases and a leading cause of morbidity. Despite several advances in cardiovascular therapies, pharmacological treatments are limited to relieve symptoms without curing cardiac injury. Multiple observations point to the involvement of immune cells as key drivers in the pathophysiology of heart failure. In particular, there is a growing recognition that heart failure is related to a prolonged and insufficiently repressed inflammatory response leading to molecular, cellular, and functional cardiac alterations. Over the last decades, non-coding RNAs are recognized as prominent mediators of the cardiac inflammation, affecting the function of several immune cells. In the current review, we explore the contribution of the diverse immune cells in the progression of heart failure, revealing mechanistic functions for non-coding RNAs in cardiac immune cells as a new and exciting field of investigation.

The lncRNA Growth Arrest Specific 5 Regulates Cell Survival via Distinct Structural Modules with Independent Functions

There is increasing evidence that the architecture of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs)-just like that of proteins-is hierarchically organized into independently folding sub-modules with distinct functions. Studies characterizing the cellular activities of such modules, however, are rare. The lncRNA growth arrest specific 5 (GAS5) is a key regulator of cell survival in response to stress and nutrient availability. We use SHAPE-MaP to probe the structure of GAS5 and identify three separate structural modules that act independently in leukemic T cells. The 5' terminal module with low secondary structure content affects basal survival and slows the cell cycle, whereas the highly structured core module mediates the effects of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) inhibition on cell growth. These results highlight the central role of GAS5 in regulating cell survival and reveal how a single lncRNA transcript utilizes a modular structure-function relationship to respond to a variety of cellular stresses under various cellular conditions.

Long Non-coding RNA GAS5 Regulates T Cell Functions via miR21-Mediated Signaling in People Living With HIV

T cells are critical for the control of viral infections and T cell responses are regulated by a dynamic network of non-coding RNAs, including microRNAs (miR) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA). Here we show that an activation-induced decline of lncRNA growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) activates DNA damage response (DDR), and regulates cellular functions and apoptosis in CD4 T cells derived from people living with HIV (PLHIV) via upregulation of miR-21. Notably, GAS5-miR21-mediated DDR and T cell dysfunction are observed in PLHIV on antiretroviral therapy (ART), who often exhibit immune activation due to low-grade inflammation despite robust virologic control. We found that GAS5 negatively regulates miR-21 expression, which in turn controls critical signaling pathways involved in DNA damage and cellular response. The sustained stimulation of T cells decreased GAS5, increased miR-21 and, as a result, caused dysfunction and apoptosis in CD4 T cells. Importantly, this inflammation-driven T cell over-activation and aberrant apoptosis in ART-controlled PLHIV and healthy subjects (HS) could be reversed by antagonizing the GAS5-miR-21 axis. Also, mutation of the miR-21 binding site on exon 4 of GAS5 gene to generate a GAS5 mutant abolished its ability to regulate miR-21 expression as well as T cell activation and apoptosis markers compared to the wild-type GAS5 transcript. Our data suggest that GAS5 regulates TCR-mediated activation and apoptosis in CD4 T cells during HIV infection through miR-21-mediated signaling. However, GAS5 effects on T cell exhaustion during HIV infection may be mediated by a mechanism beyond the GAS5-miR-21-mediated signaling. These results indicate that targeting the GAS5-miR-21 axis may improve activity and longevity of CD4 T cells in ART-treated PLHIV. This approach may also be useful for targeting other infectious or inflammatory diseases associated with T cell over-activation, exhaustion, and premature immune aging.

LncRNAs and Immunity: Coding the Immune System with Noncoding Oligonucleotides

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) represent key regulators of gene transcription during the inflammatory response. Recent findings showed lncRNAs to be dysregulated in human diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes, allergies, asthma, and cancer. These noncoding RNAs are crucial for immune mechanism, as they are involved in differentiation, cell migration and in the production of inflammatory mediators through regulating protein–protein interactions or their ability to assemble with RNA and DNA. The last interaction can occur in cis or trans and is responsible for all the possible lncRNAs biological effects. Our proposal is to provide an overview on lncRNAs roles and functions related to immunity and immune mediated diseases, since these elucidations could be beneficial to untangle the complex bond between them.

Biological Characteristics and Roles of Noncoding RNAs in Milk-Derived Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have diverse roles in the transport of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids between cells, and they serve as mediators of intercellular communication. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) that are present in EVs, including microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and circular RNAs, have been found to participate in complex networks of interactions and regulate a wide variety of genes in animals. Milk is an important source of nutrition for humans and other mammals. Evidence suggests that milk-derived EVs contain abundant ncRNAs, which are stable and can be transported to the offspring and other consumers. Current data suggest a strong link between milk EV ncRNAs and many biological processes, and these ncRNAs have been drawing increasing attention and might play an epigenetic regulatory role in recipients, though further research is still necessary to understand their precise roles. The present review introduces basic information about milk EV ncRNAs, summarizes their expression profiles, biological characteristics, and functions based on current knowledge, and discusses their biological roles, indeterminate issues, and perspectives. Our goal is to provide a deeper understanding of the physiological effects of milk EV ncRNAs on offspring and to provide a reference for future research in this field.

The Non-Coding RNA GAS5 and Its Role in Tumor Therapy-Induced Resistance

The growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5) is a >200-nt lncRNA molecule that regulates several cellular functions, including proliferation, apoptosis, invasion and metastasis, across different types of human cancers. Here, we reviewed the current literature on the expression of GAS5 in leukemia, cervical, breast, ovarian, prostate, urinary bladder, lung, gastric, colorectal, liver, osteosarcoma and brain cancers, as well as its interaction with various miRNAs and its effect on therapy-related resistance in these malignancies. The general consensus is that GAS5 acts as a tumor suppressor across different tumor types and that its up-regulation results in tumor sensitization to chemotherapy or radiotherapy. GAS5 seems to play a previously unappreciated, but significant role in tumor therapy-induced resistance.

Over-Expression of Immune-Related lncRNAs in Inflammatory Demyelinating Polyradiculoneuropathies

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have crucial roles in the pathogenesis of immune-related disorders. However, their role in the pathobiology of inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathies remains unclear. In the current study, we measured peripheral expression of four lncRNAs, namely TUG1, FAS-AS1, NEAT1, and GAS5, in patients with acute/chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathies (AIDP/CIDP) compared with healthy subjects. Notably, all lncRNAs were over-expressed in patients compared with controls (P < 0.0001 for all lncRNAs). When assessing their expressions in AIDP and CIDP groups separately, TUG1 and NEAT1 were up-regulated in both patient groups compared with controls, yet FAS-AS1 and GAS5 were only up-regulated in CIDP cases. There were remarkable pairwise correlations between expression levels of these lncRNAs in all study groups. Based on the above-mentioned data, we suggest participation of these for lncRNAs in the pathogenesis of inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuropathies. Moreover, FAS-AS1 and GAS5 lncRNAs have type-specific roles in this regard. Future functional studies are needed to elaborate the molecular mechanisms of the contribution of these transcripts in AIDP/CIDP.

The role of long non-coding RNAs and downstream signaling pathways in leukemia progression

The study of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNA) is a newly established field and our knowledge about them is rapidly growing. These kinds of RNAs are unchanged parts of the genome throughout evolution, that modulate cell growth, differentiation, and apoptosis during diverse physiological and pathological processes including leukemia development. They have the capability to be useful biomarkers for the diagnosis, clinical typing, prognosis, as well as potential therapeutic targets. In this study, we summarized the role of lncRNAs in the expression and function of white blood cells and oncogenic transformation into four main types of leukemia.

LncRNA MIR22HG abrogation inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis in esophageal adenocarcinoma cells via activation of the STAT3/c-Myc/FAK signaling

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have involved in human malignancies and played an important role in gene regulations. The dysregulation of lncRNA MIR22HG has been reported in several cancers. However, the role of MIR22HG in esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is poorly understood. Loss of function approaches were used to investigate the biological role of MIR22HG in EAC cells. The effects of MIR22HG on cell proliferation were evaluated by WST-1 and colony formation assays. The effects of MIR22HG on cell migration and invasion were examined using transwell assays. QRT-PCR and Western blot were used to evaluate the mRNA and protein expression of related genes. In this study, abrogation of MIR22HG inhibited cell proliferation, colony formation, invasion and migration in EAC 3 cell lines (OE33, OE19 and FLO-1). Mechanistically, MIR22HG silencing decreased the expression of STAT3/c-Myc/p-FAK proteins and induced apoptosis in EAC cell lines. These results delineate a novel mechanism of MIR22HG in EAC, and may provide potential targets by developing lncRNA-based therapies for EAC.

Low GAS5 expression may predict poor survival and cisplatin resistance in cervical cancer

Cisplatin resistance is a major challenge in cervical cancer (CC) chemotherapy. Growth arrest-specific 5 (GAS5) has been reported to be a tumour suppressor gene in CC. However, the mechanism of GAS5 in chemoresistance remains undetermined. Our research evaluated GAS5 expression in normal and CC tissues by qPCR and in situ hybridization (ISH). Statistical analysis was conducted to analyse the association of GAS5 expression with survival. Biochemical methods were used to screen upstream and downstream regulators of GAS5. Then, interactions were confirmed by ChIP, RNA pull-down, RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), dual-luciferase reporter and real-time PCR assays. The cisplatin sensitivity of GAS5-overexpressing CC cells was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that low GAS5 expression was correlated with poor overall survival. Mechanistically, GAS5 was transcriptionally modulated by P-STAT3 and served as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) of miR-21 to indirectly affect cisplatin sensitivity through PDCD4 regulation in CC cells. Animal studies confirmed that GAS5 enhanced cisplatin sensitivity and promoted PDCD4 expression in vivo. GAS5 was regulated by P-STAT3 and affected the sensitivity of CC to cisplatin-based chemotherapy through the miR-21/PDCD4 axis. This result may provide new insight into cisplatin-based therapy.

Long non-coding RNA GAS5 in human cancer

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) constitute a group of >200-nucleotide ncRNA molecules. lncRNAs regulate several cell functions, such as proliferation, apoptosis, invasion and metastasis. Meanwhile, lncRNAs are abnormally expressed in human malignancies, where they suppress or promote tumor growth. The present study focused on growth arrest-specific transcript 5 (GAS5), a well-known lncRNA that acts as a tumor suppressor but is suppressed in multiple types of cancer, including mammary carcinoma, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, gastric cancer, melanoma, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma, lung cancer, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, gliomas, osteosarcoma, pancreatic cancer, bladder cancer, kidney cancer, papillary thyroid carcinoma, neuroblastoma, endometrial cancer and liver cancer. Notably, GAS5 is overexpressed in liver cancer, potentially functioning as an oncogene. In the present study, the diagnostic and therapeutic roles of GAS5 in different tumors were reviewed, with a summary of the potential clinical application of the lncRNA, which may help identify novel study directions for GAS5.

LINC00857 knockdown inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis via involving STAT3 and MET oncogenic proteins in esophageal adenocarcinoma

Esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide, and the molecular biology of this cancer remains poorly understood. Recent evidence indicates that long non-coding RNAs are dysregulated in a variety of cancers including EAC. In this study, siRNA mediated gene knockdown, Western blot, RT-PCR, as well as oncogenic function assay were performed. We found that the cell proliferation, colony formation, invasion and migration were decreased after LINC00857 knockdown in EAC cell lines. We also found that knockdown LINC00857 could induce apoptosis. Mechanistically, we found that the MET, STAT3, c-Myc and p-CREB proteins were decreased after LINC00857 knockdown. Our study suggests that LINC00857 may play an important oncogenic role in EAC via STAT3 and MET signaling.

WITHDRAWN: GAS5 enhances natural killer cell-mediated killing by promoting ubiquitination of SESN2 in prostate cancer cells

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LncRNA GAS5 and miR-137 Polymorphisms and Expression are Associated with Multiple Sclerosis Risk: Mechanistic Insights and Potential Clinical Impact

The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) is influenced by the interaction of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. The long noncoding RNA GAS5 acts as a competing endogenous RNA for microRNA-137 and is involved in demyelination. We investigated the association of GAS5 and miR-137 expression and their polymorphisms with MS susceptibility. One hundred and eight MS patients and 104 healthy controls were included. Expression analysis and genotyping of GAS5-rs2067079 and miR-137-rs1625579 single nucleotide polymorphisms were performed by qPCR. Serum GAS5 was upregulated, while serum miR-137 was downregulated in MS compared with the controls. Serum miR-137 was an excellent discriminator of MS patients from the controls (AUC = 0.97) and a negative independent predictor of MS in multivariate logistic analysis. Serum GAS5 expression was positively correlated with the expanded disability status scale scores in the relapsing-remitting MS patients. The rs2067079TT minor homozygote genotype was associated with an increased MS risk, while the rs1625579G minor allele was protective. rs1625579 showed an age-specific effect, while the rs2067079 affected the MS risk in gender- and age-specific manners. In MS patients, rs2067079TT was associated with a higher serum GAS5 than other genotypes, while serum miR-137 did not differ between rs1625579 genotypes. Our results suggest serum GAS5 and miR-137 as MS biomarkers, with miR-137 as a negative predictor of MS risk and GAS5 as a marker of MS severity. We propose rs2067079 and rs1625579 as novel genetic markers of MS susceptibility, and at least, rs2067079 possibly impacts the crosstalk between GAS5 and miR-137.

Non-coding RNA and immune-checkpoint inhibitors: friends or foes?

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are an abundant component of the human transcriptome. Their biological role, however, remains incompletely understood. Nevertheless, ncRNAs are highly associated with cancer development and progression due to their ability to modulate gene expression, protein translation and growth pathways. Immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are considered one of the most promising and highly effective therapeutic approaches for cancer treatment. ICIs are monoclonal antibodies targeting immune checkpoints such as CTLA-4, PD-1 and PD-L1 signalling pathways that stimulate T cell cytotoxicity and can result in tumor growth suppression. This Review will summarize existing knowledge regarding ncRNAs and their role in cancer and ICI therapy. In addition, we will discuss potential mechanisms by which ncRNAs may influence ICI treatment outcomes.

Role of long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) in multiple sclerosis: a brief review

Multiple sclerosis (MS) as chronic autoimmune inflammatory neurological disease of the central nervous system (CNS) occurs due to several environmental and genetic factors, whose pathogenesis is associated with genes with regulatory role in the immune system. Long non-coding RNAs (LncRNAs) are able to reportedly regulate responses of immune systems and expression of genes, and show the tissue specificity and complexity of biofunctions. Various studies have suggested that the aberrant LncRNA expression is an underlying factor involved in the incidence of MS and that the analysis of the expression profile of these molecules can be a specific biomarker of MS for preventing the course of the disease or responding to treatment. The purpose of this research was to review the recent studies for exploring the functions of LncRNAs in the processes leading to MS disease.

Association of the Polymorphism rs13259960 in SLEAR With Predisposition to Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

OBJECTIVE

Genome-wide association studies have identified many susceptibility loci for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). However, most of these loci are located in noncoding regions of the genome. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are pervasively expressed and have been reported to be involved in various diseases. This study aimed to explore the genetic significance of lncRNAs in SLE.

METHODS

A genome-wide survey of SLE risk variants in lncRNA gene loci was performed in Han Chinese subjects (4,556 with SLE and 9,451 healthy controls). The functional relevance of an SLE risk variant in one of the lncRNA genes was explored using biochemical and molecular cell biology analyses. In vitro loss-of-function and gain-of-function strategies were used to clarify the functional and phenotypic relevance of this SLE susceptibility lncRNA. Moreover, correlation of this lncRNA with the degree of apoptosis in the peripheral blood of SLE patients was evaluated.

RESULTS

A novel SLE susceptibility locus in a lncRNA gene, designated SLEAR (for SLE-associated RNA), was identified at the single-nucleotide polymorphism rs13259960 (odds ratio 1.35, P_combined = 1.03 × 10^-11 ). The A>G variation at rs13259960, located in an intronic enhancer, was found to impair STAT1 recruitment to the enhancer that loops to the SLEAR promoter, resulting in decreased SLEAR production in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with SLE (3 with the G/G genotype, 22 with A/G, and 103 with A/A at rs13259960; P = 0.0241). Moreover, SLEAR interacted with the RNA binding proteins interleukin enhancer binding factor 2, heterogeneous nuclear RNP F, and TATA-binding protein-associated factor 15, to form a complex for transcriptional activation of the downstream antiapoptotic genes. In addition, SLEAR regulated apoptosis of Jurkat cells in vitro, and its expression level was correlated with the degree of cell death in the peripheral blood of patients with SLE (r = 0.824, P = 2.15 × 10^-8 ; n = 30).

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest a mechanism by which the risk variant at rs13259960 modulates SLEAR expression and confers a predisposition to SLE. Taken together, these results may give insights into the etiology of SLE.