Evaluation of sensitivity of flow cytometry in detecting aneuploidy in wheat using disomic and ditelosomic wheat-rye addition lines

Determination of genotoxic effects of copper sulphate and cobalt chloride in Allium cepa root cells by chromosome aberration and comet assays

We used the anaphase-telophase chromosome aberration and comet (Single Cell Gel Electrophoresis, SCGE) assays to evaluate the genotoxic effects of copper sulphate (CS) and cobalt chloride (CC) chemicals prepared in two concentrations (EC(50), 2xEC(50)), using methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) as a positive control and untreated cells as a negative control. In Allium root growth inhibition test, EC(50) values for CS and CC are 1.5 and 5.5 ppm, respectively. Mitotic index (MI) decreased in all concentrations tested of CS and CC compared to the control at each exposure time. The bridge, stickiness, vagrant chromosomes, fragments, c-anaphase and multipolarity chromosome aberrations were observed in anaphase-telophase cells. The total chromosome aberrations were more frequent with an increasing in the exposure time and the concentrations of both chemicals. The genotoxicity of CS and CC in Allium cepa root cells was analyzed using a mild alkaline comet assay at pH 12.3, which allows the detection of single strand breaks. In all the concentrations, CS and CC induced a significant increase (P<0.05) in DNA damage. No significant difference was found between positive control (300+/-5.81) and 3 ppm CS (280+/-4.61). The methods used are applicable for biological monitoring of environmental pollutants.

Analysis of nuclear DNA content and ploidy in higher plants

This is the first of a series of units discussing the application of cytometry to plant material. Techniques commonly used for mammalian nuclei evaluation need considerable modification to be successful with plant material. David Galbraith and his colleagues bring together many years of knowledge in plant cytometry. Their unit provides detailed protocols on measuring DNA content, ploidy, and cell cycle status of plant tissue using both conventional laser based instruments as well as arc lamp cytometers. This unit provides an excellent starting point for those interested in doing cytometry with plants.

Genome size estimations on Ulmus minor Mill., Ulmus glabra Huds., and Celtis australis L. using flow cytometry

The Ulmaceae family is composed of nearly 2000 species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere. Despite their wide distribution area, there are only four native species in the Iberian Peninsula. In this work the genome size of three of those species (ULMUS MINOR, U. GLABRA, and CELTIS AUSTRALIS) was estimated using flow cytometry. The nuclear DNA content of C. AUSTRALIS was estimated as 2.46 +/- 0.061 pg/2C, of U. MINOR as 4.25 +/- 0.158 pg/2C, and of U. GLABRA as 4.37 +/- 0.103 pg/2C of DNA. No statistically significant differences were detected among individuals of the same species. These species revealed to be problematic for flow cytometric analyses, due to the release of mucilaginous compounds into the nuclear suspension. Despite that, the modified protocol here presented ensured high quality analyses (low coefficient of variation and background debris and nuclear fluorescence stability), opening good perspectives on its application to estimate the genome size of species with similar problems.

Flow cytometric and microscopic analysis of the effect of tannic acid on plant nuclei and estimation of DNA content

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Flow cytometry (FCM) is extensively used to estimate DNA ploidy and genome size in plants. In order to determine nuclear DNA content, nuclei in suspension are stained by a DNA-specific fluorochrome and fluorescence emission is quantified. Recent studies have shown that cytosolic compounds may interfere with binding of fluorochromes to DNA, leading to flawed data. Tannic acid, a common phenolic compound, may be responsible for some of the stoichiometric errors, especially in woody plants. In this study, the effect of tannic acid on estimation of nuclear DNA content was evaluated in Pisum sativum and Zea mays, which were chosen as model species.

METHODS

Nuclear suspensions were prepared from P. sativum leaf tissue using four different lysis buffers (Galbraith's, LB01, Otto's and Tris.MgCl2). The suspensions were treated with tannic acid (TA) at 13 different initial concentrations ranging from 0.25 to 3.50 mg mL-1. After propidium iodide (PI) staining, samples were analysed using FCM. In addition to the measurement of nuclei fluorescence, light scatter properties were assessed. Subsequently, a single TA concentration was chosen for each buffer and the effect of incubation time was assessed. Similar analyses were performed on liquid suspensions of P. sativum and Z. mays nuclei that were isolated, treated and analysed simultaneously. FCM analyses were accompanied by microscopic observations of nuclei suspensions.

KEY RESULTS

TA affected PI fluorescence and light scatter properties of plant nuclei, regardless of the isolation buffer used. The least pronounced effects of TA were observed in Tris.MgCl2 buffer. Samples obtained using Galbraith's and LB01 buffers were the most affected by this compound. A newly described 'tannic acid effect' occurred immediately after the addition of the compound. With the exception of Otto's buffer, nuclei of P. sativum and Z. mays were affected differently, with pea nuclei exhibiting a greater decrease in fluorescence intensity.

CONCLUSIONS

A negative effect of a secondary metabolite, TA, on estimation of nuclear DNA content is described and recommendations for minimizing the effect of cytosolic compounds are presented. Alteration in light scattering properties of isolated nuclei can be used as an indicator of the presence of TA, which may cause stoichiometric errors in nuclei staining using a DNA intercalator, PI.

Comparison of four nuclear isolation buffers for plant DNA flow cytometry

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

DNA flow cytometry requires preparation of suspensions of intact nuclei, which are stained using a DNA-specific fluorochrome prior to analysis. Various buffer formulas were developed to preserve nuclear integrity, protect DNA from degradation and facilitate its stoichiometric staining. Although nuclear isolation buffers differ considerably in chemical composition, no systematic comparison of their performance has been made until now. This knowledge is required to select the appropriate buffer for a given species and tissue.

METHODS

Four common lysis buffers (Galbraith's, LB01, Otto's and Tris.MgCl2) were used to prepare samples from leaf tissues of seven plant species (Sedum burrito, Oxalis pes-caprae, Lycopersicon esculentum, Celtis australis, Pisum sativum, Festuca rothmaleri and Vicia faba). The species were selected to cover a wide range of genome sizes (1.30-26.90 pg per 2C DNA) and a variety of leaf tissue types. The following parameters were assessed: forward (FS) and side (SS) light scatters, fluorescence of propidium iodide-stained nuclei, coefficient of variation of DNA peaks, presence of debris background and the number of nuclei released from sample tissue. The experiments were performed independently by two operators and repeated on three different days.

KEY RESULTS

Clear differences among buffers were observed. With the exception of O. pes-caprae, any buffer provided acceptable results for all species. LB01 and Otto's were generally the best buffers, with Otto's buffer providing better results in species with low DNA content. Galbraith's buffer led to satisfactory results and Tris.MgCl2 was generally the worst, although it yielded the best histograms in C. australis. A combined analysis of FS and SS provided a 'fingerprint' for each buffer. The variation between days was more significant than the variation between operators.

CONCLUSIONS

Each lysis buffer tested responded to a specific problem differently and none of the buffers worked best with all species. These results expand our knowledge on nuclear isolation buffers and will facilitate selection of the most appropriate buffer depending on species, tissue type and the presence of cytosolic compounds interfering with DNA staining.

Assessment of ploidy stability of the somatic embryogenesis process in Quercus suber L. using flow cytometry

Flow cytometry analyses were used to verify the ploidy stability of Quercus suber L. somatic embryogenesis process. Leaf explants of two adult cork oak trees (QsG0 and QsG5) of the North of Portugal were inoculated on MS medium with 2,4-D and zeatin. After 3 months, calluses with embryogenic structures were isolated and transferred to fresh MS medium without growth regulators and somatic embryo evolution was followed. Morphologically normal somatic embryos (with two cotyledons) and abnormal somatic embryos (with one or three cotyledons) were used in this assay. Flow cytometry combined with propidium iodide staining was employed to estimate DNA ploidy levels and nuclear DNA content of somatic embryos and leaves from mother plants. No significant differences (P< or =0.05) were detected among embryos, and between the embryos and the mother plants. Also, after conversion of these embryos, no significant morphological differences were observed among the somatic embryo-derived plants. These results and further studies using converted plantlet leaves and embryogenic callus tissue indicate that embryo cultures and converted plantlets were stable with regard to ploidy level. As no major somaclonal variation was detected our primary goal of "true-to-type" propagation of cork oak using somatic embryogenesis was assured at this level. The estimation of the 2C nuclear DNA content for this species is similar to the previously obtained value.

Flow cytometric analysis of genome size variation in some Passiflora species

Nuclear genome size variation was studied in eight taxa of Passiflora. Nuclear DNA content was estimated by flow cytometry of nuclei stained by propidium iodide. 2C DNA content ranged from 3.16-5.36 pg for diploids and 1.83 pg for tetraploid. Differences in nuclear genome size were observed among Passiflora species (pg): P. suberosa 1.83, P. edulis f. edulis 3.16, P. edulis f. flavicarpa (Brazil) 3.19, P. edulis f. flavicarpa (Mexico) 3.21, P. mucronata 3.40, Passiflora edmundoi 3.43, P. laurifolia 3.88, P. giberti 3.92, P. quadrangularis 5.36, the largest value being up to 192% greater than the smallest. The means of 2C DNA content were compared by the Tukey test, and the differences in genome size permitted the recognition of five taxa groups. The result was the same for the means 2C genome size (Mbp) values. The genetic parameters were studied with their respective estimators, phenotypic variance (sigma2F), genotypic variability (PhiG), and the genotypic determination index (H2). The genotypic determination index presented high magnitude estimates (greater than 99%) emphasizing the reliability of the results and demonstrating the efficiency of determining the DNA content in the species using only one leaf per plant. Passiflora species show great phenotypic variability and have different geographic distribution that might implicate in genetic diversity.

Population genetic structure of a colonising, triploid weed, Hieracium lepidulum

Understanding the breeding system and population genetic structure of invasive weed species is important for biocontrol, and contributes to our understanding of the evolutionary processes associated with invasions. Hieracium lepidulum is an invasive weed in New Zealand, colonising a diverse range of habitats including native Nothofagus forest, pine plantations, scrubland and tussock grassland. It is competing with native subalpine and alpine grassland and herbfield vegetation. H. lepidulum is a triploid, diplosporous apomict, so theoretically all seed is clonal, and there is limited potential for the creation of variation through recombination. We used intersimple sequence repeats (ISSRs) to determine the population genetic structure of New Zealand populations of H. lepidulum. ISSR analysis of five populations from two regions in the South Island demonstrated high intrapopulation genotypic diversity, and high interpopulation genetic structuring; PhiST = 0.54 over all five populations. No private alleles were found in any of the five populations, and allelic differentiation was correlated to geographic distance. Cladistic compatibility analysis indicated that both recombination and mutation were important in the creation of genotypic diversity. Our data will contribute to any biocontrol program developed for H. lepidulum. It will also be a baseline data set for future comparisons of genetic structure during the course of H. lepidulum invasions.

Analysis of the genetic stability of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. somatic embryos by flow cytometry

Flow cytometry was used to measure the nuclear DNA content of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. somatic and zygotic embryos and leaves in order to determine if somatic embryogenesis induces DNA content and ploidy changes in this species. Mature zygotic embryos derived from open-pollination orchard families were collected from a location in the centre of Portugal. One group was kept for nuclear DNA content and ploidy analysis, and the other group was used for establishing embryogenic cultures. Mature zygotic embryos were grown on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 3% (w/v) sucrose and 3 mg l(-1) alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) for 3 weeks and then transferred to MS medium without growth regulators. Globular somatic embryos from approximately 8-month-old embryogenic cultures were used in the assay. DNA ploidy levels and the nuclear DNA content of mature zygotic embryos, somatic embryos and leaves from the mother field tree were determined using flow cytometry combined with propidium iodide staining. Zygotic embryos had a nuclear DNA content of 1.32 pg/2C, somatic embryos had a nuclear DNA content of 1.39 pg/2C and leaves from the field tree had a nuclear DNA content of 1.40 pg/2C. The values estimated for the somatic embryos and mother plant did not differ statistically from each other (P < or = 0.05), but both differed from those of the zygotic embryos (P < or = 0.05). These results clearly indicate that no changes were induced during the embryogenic process. However, the differences found between the field plants and zygotic embryos did suggest that some aspects must be evaluated carefully, as propidium iodide fluorescence may potentially be influenced by the presence of secondary compounds (e.g. anthocyanins, tannins) in E. globulus somatic embryos and mature leaves. Therefore we believe that the somatic embryogenesis methodology used did not induce major genetic changes in the somatic embryos and that our primary goal of "true-to-type" propagation was assured.

Rapid detection of aneuploidy in Musa using flow cytometry

We report a procedure for the rapid and convenient detection of aneuploidy in triploid Musa using DNA flow cytometry. From a population of plants derived from gamma-irradiated shoot tips, plants were selected based on aberrant morphology and their chromosome numbers were counted. Aneuploids plants with chromosome numbers 2n=31 or 32 were found as well as the expected triploid plants (2n=3x=33). At the same time, the nuclear DNA content of all plants was measured using flow cytometry. The flow cytometric assay involved the use of nuclei isolated from chicken red blood cells (CRBC), which served as an internal reference standard. The relative DNA content of individual plants was expressed as a ratio of DNA content of CRBC and Musa (DNA index). In order to estimate the chromosome number using flow cytometry, the relative DNA content of plants with unknown ploidy was expressed as a percentage of the DNA content of triploid plants. The classification based on flow cytometry fully agreed with the results obtained by chromosome counting. The results indicated that flow cytometry is a convenient and rapid method for the detection of aneuploidy in Musa.

DNA base composition of Allium genomes with different chromosome numbers

The present report examines whether the presence of an additional chromosome can be detected as modifying the nuclear DNA amount and base composition of the cell, determined here by flow cytometry of interphasic nuclei, using four monosomic additions (chromosomes 3C, 4C, 7C and 8C transmitted from Allium cepa to Allium fistulosum L.). A. cepa differs significantly from A. fistulosum in genome size (2C DNA = 33.2 pg in A. cepa and 23.3 pg in A. fistulosum) as well as in GC content (38.7% and 39.8%, respectively). The presence of an extra chromosome of A. cepa obviously increases the nuclear DNA amount above the A. fistulosum value but also alters the apparent mean GC content. By comparing the monosomic additions and the parental background, the DNA amount and base composition of each of the four single chromosomes were calculated to quantify the GC content per chromosome and therefore to deduce their initial contribution to the A. cepa genome. Taken individually, some chromosomes are atypical in terms of GC content: the single chromosome 3C is AT-rich, having only about only 25% GC. However, the three other chromosomes examined are typical of the A. cepa genome in base composition. Indeed, this biological panel gives access to chromosomal features via a cytometric assay of nuclei. It should facilitate quantification of GC-rich repetitive sequences forming heterochromatic domains located mainly at the telomeres in the monocotyledonous A. cepa genome.

Flow cytometric analysis of the chromosomes and stability of a wheat cell-culture line

A rapidly growing, long-term suspension culture derived from Triticum aestivum L. (wheat) was synchronized using hydroxyurea and colchicine, and a chromosome suspension with 2-3 x 10(6) chromosomes ml(-1) was made. After staining with the DNA-specific fluorochromes Hoechst 33258 and Chromomycin A(3), univariate and bivariate flow-cytometry histograms showed 15 clearly resolved peaks corresponding to individual chromosome types or groups of chromosomes with similar DNA contents. The flow karyotype was closely similar to a histogram of DNA content measurements of Feulgen-stained chromosomes made by microdensitometry. We were able to show the stability of the flow karyotype of the cell line over a year, while a parallel subculture had a slightly different, stable, karyotype following different growth conditions. The data indicate that flow cytometric analysis of plant karyotypes enables accurate, statistically precise chromosome classification and karyotyping of cereals. There was little overlap between individual flow-histogram peaks, so the method is useful for flow sorting and the construction of chromosome specific-recombinant DNA libraries. Using bivariate analysis, the AT:GC ratio of all the chromosomes was remarkably similar, in striking contrast to mammalian flow karyotypes. We speculate about a fundamental difference in organization and homogenization of DNA sequences between chromosomes within mammalian and plant genomes.