Matrix metalloproteinases and tumor metastasis

NADPH oxidase 1: A target in the capacity of dimeric ECG and EGCG procyanidins to inhibit colorectal cancer cell invasion

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is prevalent worldwide. Dietary consumption of procyanidins has been linked to a reduced risk of developing CRC. The epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway is frequently dysregulated in CRC. Our earlier research showed that the procyanidin dimers of epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), through their interaction with lipid rafts, inhibit the EGFR signaling pathway and decrease CRC cell growth. The process of cancer cell invasion and metastasis involves matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are partially EGFR-regulated. This study investigated whether ECG and EGCG dimers can inhibit EGF-induced CRC cell invasion by suppressing the redox-regulated activation of the EGFR/MMPs pathway. Both dimers mitigated EGF-induced cell invasion and the associated increase of MMP-2/9 expression and activity in different CRC cell lines. In Caco-2 cells, both dimers inhibited the activation of the EGFR and downstream of NF-κB, ERK1/2 and Akt, which was associated with decreased MMP-2/9 transcription. EGF induced a rapid NOX1-dependent oxidant increase, which was diminished by both ECG and EGCG dimers and NOX inhibitors (apocynin, Vas-2870, DPI). Both dimers inhibited NOX1 gene expression, as well as NOX1 activity with evidence of direct binding to NOX1. Both dimers, all NOX chemical inhibitors and NOX1 silencing inhibited EGF-mediated activation of the EGFR signaling pathway and the increased MMP-2/9 mRNA levels and activity. Pointing to the relevance of NOX1 on ECG and EGCG dimer effects on CRC invasiveness, silencing of NOX1 also inhibited EGF-stimulated Caco-2 cell invasion. In summary, ECG and EGCG dimers can act inhibiting CRC cell invasion/metastasis both, by downregulating MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression via a NOX1/EGFR-dependent mechanism, and through a direct inhibitory effect on MMPs enzyme activity.

ARHGAP25 suppresses the development of breast cancer by an ARHGAP25/Wnt/ASCL2 feedback loop

Downregulation of ARHGAP25 was found in the tumor samples from breast cancer patients and five breast cancer cell lines. However, its precise role and molecular mechanisms in breast cancer remain completely unknown. Herein, we found that knockdown of ARHGAP25 in breast cancer cells promoted proliferation, migration and invasion of breast cancer cells. Mechanistically, ARHGAP25 silence facilitated the activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway and the upregulation of its downstream molecules (including c-Myc, Cyclin D1, PCNA, MMP2, MMP9, Snail and ASCL2) by directly regulating Rac1/PAK1 in breast cancer cells. In vivo xenograft experiments indicated ARHGAP25 silence promoted tumor growth and activated the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. In contrast, overexpression of ARHGAP25 in vitro and in vivo impeded all of the above cancer properties. Intriguingly, ASCL2, a downstream target of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, transcriptionally repressed the expression of ARHGAP25 and therefore constituted a negative feedback loop. Moreover, bioinformatics analysis indicated that ARHGAP25 was significantly correlated with tumor immune cell infiltration and the survival of patients with different immune cell subgroups in breast cancer. Collectively, our work revealed that ARHGAP25 suppressed tumor progression of breast cancer. It provides a novel insight for the treatment of breast cancer.

Three-Dimensional Cell Cultures: The Bridge between In Vitro and In Vivo Models

Although historically, the traditional bidimensional in vitro cell system has been widely used in research, providing much fundamental information regarding cellular functions and signaling pathways as well as nuclear activities, the simplicity of this system does not fully reflect the heterogeneity and complexity of the in vivo systems. From this arises the need to use animals for experimental research and in vivo testing. Nevertheless, animal use in experimentation presents various aspects of complexity, such as ethical issues, which led Russell and Burch in 1959 to formulate the 3R (Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement) principle, underlying the urgent need to introduce non-animal-based methods in research. Considering this, three-dimensional (3D) models emerged in the scientific community as a bridge between in vitro and in vivo models, allowing for the achievement of cell differentiation and complexity while avoiding the use of animals in experimental research. The purpose of this review is to provide a general overview of the most common methods to establish 3D cell culture and to discuss their promising applications. Three-dimensional cell cultures have been employed as models to study both organ physiology and diseases; moreover, they represent a valuable tool for studying many aspects of cancer. Finally, the possibility of using 3D models for drug screening and regenerative medicine paves the way for the development of new therapeutic opportunities for many diseases.

A Metal-Polyphenol-Based Oxygen Economizer and Fenton Reaction Amplifier for Self-Enhanced Synergistic Photothermal/Chemodynamic/Chemotherapy

To overcome the limitations of doxorubicin (DOX) chemotherapy, nanomedicines that integrate additional photothermal therapy (PTT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) strategies are highlighted as promising alternatives for the treatment of malignant tumors. However, time-consuming preparation processes, biosafety concerns, and the bottlenecks of individual therapeutic modalities often limit the practical applications of this strategy. To address these issues, this work designs an oxygen economizer that additionally serves as a Fenton reaction amplifier through the simple assembly of epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), pluronic F-127 (PF127), iron (III) ions, and doxorubicin (DOX) for the enhancement of synergistic PTT/CDT/chemotherapy. The resulting nanoformulation, EFPD, can target mitochondria and inhibit cell respiration to reduce O2 consumption, thus boosting DOX-mediated H2 O2 generation for enhanced CDT and simultaneously improving hypoxia-limited DOX chemotherapy efficacy. Moreover, the coordination between EGCG and Fe3+ provides EFPD with excellent photothermal conversion efficiencies (η = 34.7%) for PTT and photothermal-accelerated drug release. Experimental results indicate that EFPD-mediated synergistic enhancement of PTT/CDT/chemotherapy can achieve excellent therapeutic outcomes, including enhanced ablation of solid tumors, reduced metastasis and cardiotoxicity, and extended life spans.

Liquid Biopsy in Lung Cancer: Biomarkers for the Management of Recurrence and Metastasis

Liquid biopsies have emerged as a promising tool for the detection of metastases as well as local and regional recurrence in lung cancer. Liquid biopsy tests involve analyzing a patient's blood, urine, or other body fluids for the detection of biomarkers, including circulating tumor cells or tumor-derived DNA/RNA that have been shed into the bloodstream. Studies have shown that liquid biopsies can detect lung cancer metastases with high accuracy and sensitivity, even before they are visible on imaging scans. Such tests are valuable for early intervention and personalized treatment, aiming to improve patient outcomes. Liquid biopsies are also minimally invasive compared to traditional tissue biopsies, which require the removal of a sample of the tumor for further analysis. This makes liquid biopsies a more convenient and less risky option for patients, particularly those who are not good candidates for invasive procedures due to other medical conditions. While liquid biopsies for lung cancer metastases and relapse are still being developed and validated, they hold great promise for improving the detection and treatment of this deadly disease. Herein, we summarize available and novel approaches to liquid biopsy tests for lung cancer metastases and recurrence detection and describe their applications in clinical practice.

Multi-Faceted Role of Luteolin in Cancer Metastasis: EMT, Angiogenesis, ECM Degradation and Apoptosis

Luteolin (3',4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone), a member of the flavonoid family derived from plants and fruits, shows a wide range of biomedical applications. In fact, due to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities, Asian medicine has been using luteolin for centuries to treat several human diseases, including arthritis, rheumatism, hypertension, neurodegenerative disorders and various infections. Of note, luteolin displays many anti-cancer/anti-metastatic properties. Thus, the purpose of this review consists in highlighting the relevant mechanisms by which luteolin inhibits tumor progression in metastasis, i.e., affecting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), repressing angiogenesis and lysis of extracellular matrix (ECM), as well as inducing apoptosis.

Sandwich-Structured Implants to Obstruct Multipath Energy Supply and Trigger Self-Enhanced Hypoxia-Initiated Chemotherapy Against Postsurgical Tumor Recurrence and Metastasis

As a currently common strategy to treat cancer, surgical resection may cause tumor recurrence and metastasis due to residual postoperative tumors. Herein, an implantable sandwich-structured dual-drug depot is developed to trigger a self-intensified starvation therapy and hypoxia-induced chemotherapy sequentially. The two outer layers are 3D-printed using a calcium-crosslinked mixture ink containing soy protein isolate, polyvinyl alcohol, sodium alginate, and combretastatin A4 phosphate (CA4P). The inner layer is one patch of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)-based electrospun fibers loaded with tirapazamine (TPZ). The preferentially released CA4P destroys the preexisting blood vessels and prevents neovascularization, which obstructs the external energy supply to cancer cells but aggravates hypoxic condition. The subsequently released TPZ is bioreduced to cytotoxic benzotriazinyl under hypoxia, further damaging DNA, generating reactive oxygen species, disrupting mitochondria, and downregulating hypoxia-inducible factor 1α, vascular endothelial growth factor, and matrix metalloproteinase 9. Together these processes induce apoptosis, block the intracellular energy supply, counteract the disadvantage of CA4P in favoring intratumor angiogenesis, and suppress tumor metastasis. The in vivo and in vitro results and the transcriptome analysis demonstrate that the postsurgical adjuvant treatment with the dual-drug-loaded sandwich-like implants efficiently inhibits tumor recurrence and metastasis, showing great potential for clinical translation.

Perfluoroalkyl substances promote breast cancer progression via ERα and GPER mediated PI3K/Akt and MAPK/Erk signaling pathways

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a classic environmental endocrine disruptor with carcinogenic risk. Epidemiological studies have shown that PFASs contamination is associated with breast cancer development, but the mechanism remains largely unknown. This study first obtained complex biological information about PFASs-induced breast cancer through the comparative toxicogenomics database (CTD). The Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) network, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analysis were utilized to investigate molecular pathways. The ESR1 and GPER expression levels at different pathological stages and the prognosis of Breast Cancer patients were confirmed using the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. Furthermore, we verified this by cellular experiments and the results showed breast cancer cell migration and invasion were promoted by PFOA. Two estrogen receptors (ER), ERα and G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), mediated the promoting effects of PFOA by activating MAPK/Erk and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. These pathways were regulated by ERα and GPER in MCF-7 cells or independently by GPER in MDA-MB-231 cells. Overall, our study provides a better overview of the mechanisms associated with PFASs-induced breast cancer development and progression.

Therapeutic targeting of the tumor microenvironments with cannabinoids and their analogs: Update on clinical trials

Cancer is a major global public health concern that affects both industrialized and developing nations. Current cancer chemotherapeutic options are limited by side effects, but plant-derived alternatives and their derivatives offer the possibilities of enhanced treatment response and reduced side effects. A plethora of recently published articles have focused on treatments based on cannabinoids and cannabinoid analogs and reported that they positively affect healthy cell growth and reverse cancer-related abnormalities by targeting aberrant tumor microenvironments (TMEs), lowering tumorigenesis, preventing metastasis, and/or boosting the effectiveness of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Furthermore, TME modulating systems are receiving much interest in the cancer immunotherapy field because it has been shown that TMEs have significant impacts on tumor progression, angiogenesis, invasion, migration, epithelial to mesenchymal transition, metastasis and development of drug resistance. Here, we have reviewed the effective role of cannabinoids, their analogs and cannabinoid nano formulations on the cellular components of TME (endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblast and immune cells) and how efficiently it retards the progression of carcinogenesis is discussed. The article summarizes the existing research on the molecular mechanisms of cannabinoids regulation of the TME and finally highlights the human studies on cannabinoids' active interventional clinical trials. The conclusion outlines the need for future research involving clinical trials of cannabinoids to demonstrate their efficacy and activity as a treatment/prevention for various types of human malignancies.

Research progress on the interaction between oxidative stress and platelets: Another avenue for cancer?

Oxidative stress (OS) is a chemical imbalance between an oxidant and an antioxidant, causing damage to redox signaling and control or causing molecular damage. Unbalanced oxidative metabolism can produce excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS). These excess ROS can cause drastic changes in platelet metabolism and further affect platelet function. It will also lead to an increase in platelet procoagulant phenotype and cell apoptosis, which will increase the risk of thrombosis. The creation of ROS and subsequent platelet activation, adhesion, and recruitment are then further encouraged in an auto-amplifying loop by ROS produced from platelets. Meanwhile, cancer cells produce a higher concentration of ROS due to their fast metabolism and high proliferation rate. However, excessive ROS can result in damage to and modification of cellular macromolecules. The formation of cancer and its progression is strongly associated with oxidative stress and the resulting oxidative damage. In addition, platelets are an important part of the tumor microenvironment, and there is a significant cross-communication between platelets and cancer cells. Cancer cells alter the activation status of platelets, their RNA spectrum, proteome, and other properties. The "cloaking" of cancer cells by platelets providing physical protection，avoiding destruction from shear stress and the attack of immune cells, promoting tumor cell invasion.We explored the vicious circle interaction between ROS, platelets, and cancer in this review, and we believe that ROS can play a stimulative role in tumor growth and metastasis through platelets.

The Roles of Secreted Wnt Ligands in Cancer

Wnt ligands are secreted signaling proteins that display a wide range of biological effects. They play key roles in stimulating Wnt signaling pathways to facilitate processes such as tissue homeostasis and regeneration. Dysregulation of Wnt signaling is a hallmark of many cancers and genetic alterations in various Wnt signaling components, which result in ligand-independent or ligand-dependent hyperactivation of the pathway that have been identified. Recently, research is focusing on the impact of Wnt signaling on the interaction between tumor cells and their micro-environment. This Wnt-mediated crosstalk can act either in a tumor promoting or suppressing fashion. In this review, we comprehensively outline the function of Wnt ligands in different tumor entities and their impact on key phenotypes, including cancer stemness, drug resistance, metastasis, and immune evasion. Lastly, we elaborate approaches to target Wnt ligands in cancer therapy.

Ursonic acid inhibits migration and invasion of human osteosarcoma cells through the suppression of mitogen-activated protein kinases and matrix metalloproteinases

INTRODUCTION

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common form of bone malignancy. Although contemporary chemotherapy and surgery have improved the prognosis of those with OS, developing new OS therapies has proven difficult for some time. The activation of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways can induce metastasis, which is an obstacle to OS treatment. Ursonic acid (UNA) is a phytochemical with the potential to cure a variety of human ailments, including cancer.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, we investigated the anti-tumor properties of UNA in MG63 cells. We conducted colony formation assay, wound healing assay, and Boyden chamber assays to investigate the anti-OS effects of UNA. UNA was found to significantly inhibit the proliferative, migratory, and invasive abilities of MG63 cells. This bioactivity of UNA was mediated by the inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and p38 and reduction of MMP-2 transcriptional expression as observed in western blot analysis, gelatin zymography and RT-PCR. Anti-OS activities of UNA were also observed in Saos2 and U2OS cells, indicating that its anti-cancer properties are not specific to cell types.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that UNA has the potential for use in anti-metastatic drugs in the treatment of OS.

Base-Exchange Enabling the Visualization of SARM1 Activities in Sciatic Nerve-Injured Mice

Enzymes are important in homeostasis in living organisms. Since abnormal enzyme activities are highly associated with many human diseases, detection of in vivo activities of a specific enzyme is important to study the pathology of the related diseases. In this work, we have designed and synthesized a series of new small-molecule-activatable fluorescent probes for the imaging of Sterile Alpha and TIR Motif-containing 1 (SARM1) activities based on its transglycosidase activities (base-exchange reactions of NAD⁺). Probe 1a was found to undergo base-exchange reactions with NAD⁺ in the presence of activated SARM1 but not CD38 nor NADase and formed a highly emissive product AD-1a [about a 100-fold fluorescence enhancement in 20 min with a 150 nm (5665 cm^-1) Stokes shift and a 100 nm (3812 cm^-1) red shift]. This probe exhibited a higher reactivity and sensitivity than those commonly used for SARM1 imaging. The utilities of 1a have also been demonstrated in live-cell imaging and detection of in vivo activities of SARM1 in a sciatic nerve injury mouse model.

Anti-tumor effect of infant-derived Enterococcus via the inhibition of proliferation and inflammation as well as the promotion of apoptosis

Probiotic Enterococcus hirae WEHI01 and Enterococcus faecium WEFA23 from infants were previously found to effectively inhibit the development of melanoma. In this study, their immunomodulatory and antitumor mechanisms were systemically studied. In vitro assay showed that E. hirae WEHI01 and E. faecium WEFA23 achieved biphasic immune regulation, which was revealed by the activation of resting spleen lymphocytes and RAW264.7 macrophages, as well as the anti-inflammation effect when immune cells were treated with LPS. The antitumor effects of E. hirae WEHI01 and E. faecium WEFA23 in vitro and vivo were then investigated. CCK8 and the cell scratch assay showed that the conditioned media, which were co-incubated with Enterococcus and spleen lymphocytes, significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of B16F10, HepG-2 and HT-29 cells. The results of the tumor-bearing mice model experiment showed that E. faecium WEFA23 inhibition of the growth of tumors in mice, and the anti-tumor mechanism involved three aspects, namely tumor proliferation (decreasing expressions of LDHA, VEGF, MMP2, MMP9 and HIF-1α), inhibition of the pro-inflammation state (decreasing expressions of IL-6, TGF-β and IL-17) and the promotion of apoptosis (increasing expression of Bax/Bcl-2, caspase-3 and p53). The results suggest that the two strains of Enterococcus could be promising candidates for treating melanoma with a highly inhibitory effect.

The pro-tumorigenic responses in metastatic niches: an immunological perspective

Metastasis is the leading cause of mortality related to cancer. In the course of metastasis, cancer cells detach from the primary tumor, enter the circulation, extravasate at secondary sites, and colonize there. All of these steps are rate limiting and decrease the efficiency of metastasis. Prior to their arrival, tumor cells can modify the secondary sites. These favorable microenvironments increase the probability of successful dissemination and are referred to as pre-metastatic niches. Cancer cells use different mechanisms to induce and maintain these niches, among which immune cells play prominent roles. The immune system, including innate and adaptive, enhances recruitment, extravasation, and colonization of tumor cells at distant sites. In addition to immune cells, stromal cells can also contribute to forming pre-metastatic niches. This review summarizes the pro-metastatic responses conducted by immune cells and the assistance of stromal cells and endothelial cells in the induction of pre-metastatic niches.

Role and Application of Biocatalysts in Cancer Drug Discovery

A biocatalyst is an enzyme that speeds up or slows down the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs and speeds up certain processes by 108 times. It is used as an anticancer agent because it targets drug activation inside the tumor microenvironment while limiting damage to healthy cells. Biocatalysts have been used for the synthesis of different heterocyclic compounds and is also used in the nano drug delivery systems. The use of nano-biocatalysts for tumor-targeted delivery not only aids in tumor invasion, angiogenesis, and mutagenesis, but also provides information on the expression and activity of many markers related to the microenvironment. Iosmapinol, moclobemide, cinepazide, lysine dioxygenase, epothilone, 1-homophenylalanine, and many more are only some of the anticancer medicines that have been synthesised using biocatalysts. In this review, we have highlighted the application of biocatalysts in cancer therapies as well as the use of biocatalysts in the synthesis of drugs and drug-delivery systems in the tumor microenvironment.

Metal Complexes as Promising Matrix Metalloproteinases Regulators

Nowadays, cancers and dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease, are the most fatal causes of death. Many studies tried to understand the pathogenesis of those diseases clearly and develop a promising way to treat the diseases. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been reported to be involved in the pathology of cancers and AD through tumor cell movement and amyloid degradation. Therefore, control of the levels and actions of MMPs, especially MMP-2 and MMP-9, is necessary to care for and/or cure cancer and AD. Various molecules have been examined for their potential application as regulators of MMPs expression and activity. Among the molecules, multiple metal complexes have shown advantages, including simple synthesis, less toxicity and specificity toward MMPs in cancer cells or in the brain. In this review, we summarize the recent studies and knowledge of metal complexes (e.g., Pt-, Ru-, Au-, Fe-, Cu-, Ni-, Zn-, and Sn-complexes) targeting MMPs and their potentials for treating and/or caring the most fatal human diseases, cancers and AD.

Profiling of Multiple Matrix Metalloproteinases Activities in the Progression of Osteosarcoma by Peptide Microarray-Based Fluorescence Assay on Polymer Brush-Coated Zinc Oxide Nanorod Substrate

Peptide microarray provides the ability to miniaturize, parallelize, and automate high-throughput screening substrate specificities of enzymes, profiling of multiple enzyme activities, discovery of disease biomarkers, and development of drugs. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are demonstrated as important biomarkers of tumor invasion and metastasis. Herein, a peptide microarray-based fluorescence assay is proposed to profile multiple MMPs (MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-9, and MMP-13) activities in the culture medium of four human osteosarcoma (OS) cells and in the progression of OS by using the mouse-bearing xenograft OSs including U-2OS and Saos-2 human. This method has excellent selectivity and sensitivity, which enables to detect the activities of cellular secreted MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-9, and MMP-13 with limit of detection downs to 10 pM, 30 pM, 113 pM, 13 pM, 93 pM, and 12 pM, respectively. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the activity pattern of MMPs is serum closely relevant to the disease progression and type of tumor.

Boosting Doxorubicin-Induced Mitochondria Apoptosis for the Monodrug-Mediated Combination of Chemotherapy and Chemodynamic Therapy

Doxorubicin (Dox)-mediated generation of reactive oxygen radicals (ROS) for mitochondrial apoptosis is identified as a new cytotoxic mechanism in addition to the well-established one via nuclear DNA replication interference. However, this mechanism contributes far less than the latter to Dox therapy. This newly identified pathway to make Dox therapy function like the combination of chemodynamic therapy (CDT) and chemotherapy-mediated by Dox alone would be amplified. One-pot nanoconstruction (HEBD) is fabricated based on the chemical reactions driven assemblies among epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) and formaldehyde in aqueous mediums followed by Dox adsorption. Acid tumor microenvironments allow the liberation of EGCG, BSO, and Dox due to the breakage of Schiff base bonds. EGCG component in HEBD is responsible for targeting mitochondria and disrupting mitochondrial electron transport chain (mETC) to compel electrons leakage in favor of their capture by Dox to produce more ROS. EGCG-induced mETC disruption results in mitochondrial respiration inhibition with alleviated hypoxia in tumor cells while BSO inhibits glutathione biosynthesis to protect ROS from redox depletion, further boosting Dox-induced CDT. This strategy of amplifying CDT pathway for the Dox-mediated combined therapy could largely improve antitumor effect, extend lifespan of tumor-bearing mice, reduce risks of cardiotoxicity and metastasis.

Cell- and subcellular organelle-targeting nanoparticle-mediated breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer (BC) is the most prevalent malignant tumor, surpassing lung cancer as the most frequent malignancy in women. Drug resistance, metastasis, and immune escape are the major factors affecting patient survival and represent a huge challenge in BC treatment in clinic. The cell- and subcellular organelle-targeting nanoparticles-mediated targeted BC therapy may be an effective modality for immune evasion, metastasis, and drug resistance. Nanocarriers, efficiently delivering small molecules and macromolecules, are used to target subcellular apparatuses with excellent targeting, controlled delivery, and fewer side effects. This study summarizes and critically analyzes the latest organic nanoparticle-mediated subcellular targeted therapeutic based on chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, and combination therapy in detail, and discusses the challenges and opportunities of nanoparticle therapy.

Advancement and Applications of Platelet-inspired Nanoparticles: A Paradigm for Cancer Targeting

Platelet-inspired nanoparticles have ignited the possibility of new opportunities for producing similar biological particulates, such as structural cellular and vesicular components, as well as various viral forms, to improve biocompatible features that could improve the nature of biocompatible elements and enhance therapeutic efficacy. The simplicity and more effortless adaptability of such biomimetic techniques uplift the delivery of the carriers laden with cellular structures, which has created varied opportunities and scope of merits like; prolongation in circulation and alleviating immunogenicity improvement of the site-specific active targeting. Platelet-inspired nanoparticles or medicines are the most recent nanotechnology-based drug targeting systems used mainly to treat blood-related disorders, tumors, and cancer. The present review encompasses the current approach of platelet-inspired nanoparticles or medicines that have boosted the scientific community from versatile fields to advance biomedical sciences. Surprisingly, this knowledge has streamlined to development of newer diagnostic methods, imaging techniques, and novel nanocarriers, which might further help in the treatment protocol of the various diseased conditions. The review primarily focuses on the novel advancements and recent patents in nanoscience and nanomedicine that could be streamlined in the future for the management of progressive cancers and tumor targeting. Rigorous technological advancements like biomimetic stem cells, pH-sensitive drug delivery of nanoparticles, DNA origami devices, virosomes, nano cells like exosomes mimicking nanovesicles, DNA nanorobots, microbots, etc., can be implemented effectively for target-specific drug delivery.

Syringic Acid Suppressed Proliferation, Invasion, and Migration via Inhibition of Matrix Metalloproteinases Expression on Glioblastoma Cells by Promoting Apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Human brain tumor glioblastoma (GBM) is the most hostile malignancy, currently lacking a successful cure and good prognosis.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the anticancer effects of syringic acid (SA) on human cancer GBM cells.

METHODOLOGY

The different doses of SA were added to GBM cells to study its effect on viability, invasion, relocation, apoptosis, and mRNA and protein levels. Hence, we explored the antiproliferative, anti-invasive, and apoptotic activity of SA on GBM human U-251 cells.

RESULTS

MTT assay and live/dead assay revealed the anti-proliferative activity of SA on U-251 glioma cells. Apoptotic activity of SA was shown by DAPI staining, caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 mRNA expressions. The cell cycle regulation was also confirmed by reducing the mRNA expression of cyclinD1, CDK4, and CDK6. Treatment of SA with U-251 cells suppressed MMPs expressions and enhanced TIMPs protein levels.

CONCLUSION

Our findings put forward that SA could prevent GBM cells' invasion and relocation. SA is an ideal neuroprotective agent for controlling brain malignancy.

Peptide Array-Based In Situ Fluorescence Assay for Profiling Multiple Matrix Metalloproteinase Activities

Peptide array-based in situ fluorescence assay is a reliable and efficient technique for high-throughput profiling and localization of enzyme activity. Here, peptide array is fabricated by spotting five specific MMPs (MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-9, and MMP-14) peptide substrates containing FAM/Dabcyl fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET) pair on the surface of cell monolayers or tissue sections. MMP activities are determined in situ by the fluorescence intensity of stained cells/tissues due to the cellular internalization of hydrolyzed peptide fragments with FAM moieties. Identification of MMP expression patterns of cells, highly sensitive determination of MMP activities in cell monolayer (as low as hundreds of cells per square centimeter), and evaluation of inhibition potencies of six compounds toward five MMPs are achieved by this method. Five MMP activities in the localized parts of 32 thyroid tissues are also well profiled without separation or extraction procedures.

Ginsenoside Rk3 Inhibits the Extramedullary Infiltration of Acute Monocytic Leukemia Cell via miR-3677-5p/CXCL12 Axis

Background

Acute monocytic leukemia belongs to type M5 of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) classified by FAB, which appears a high incidence of extramedullary infiltration (EMI) and poor prognosis. In this study, we observed the inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rk3 on the EMI of monocytic leukemia cells and initially explored its related mechanism of targeting the miR-3677-5p/CXCL12 axis.

Methods

The MTT assay and colony formation assay were used to detect the inhibitory effect of Rk3 on proliferation. Both cellular migration and invasion were observed by the Transwell assay. The expression levels of miR-3677-5p, CXCL12, and CXCR4 were detected by RT-qPCR and Western blot, as well as overexpression of miR-3677-5p by transfected with lentivirus and detection of a dual luciferase reporter gene. The expression of MMP2 and TIMP2 was detected by immunofluorescence.

Results

Rk3 effectively inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion associated with EMI of leukemia. The leukemia cells of M5 patients with EMI showed low expression of miR-3677-5p but high expression of the mRNA of CXCL12 and CXCR4. Overexpression of miR-3677-5p or intervention of CXCL12 effectively inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of SHI-1 cells. The luciferase assay showed that CXCL12 was the downstream target gene of miR-3677-5p. After overexpression of miR-3677-5p or intervention of CXCL12 in combination with Rk3, the inhibitory effect on the proliferation, migration, and invasion of SHI-1 cells was more obvious. Importantly, Rk3 significantly regulated the expression levels of miR-3677-5p, CXCL12, CXCR4, and EMI-related functional proteins including MMP2 and TIMP2. Overexpression of miR-3677-5p or intervention of CXCL12 also regulated the expression of MMP2 and TIMP2.

Conclusions

The leukemia cells of M5 patients with EMI appeared to have low expression of miR-3677-5p and high expression of the mRNA of CXCL12 and CXCR4, which may be used as indicators of EMI and poor prognosis. Rk3 is effective in inhibiting the EMI of SHI-1 cells by targeting the miR-3677-5p/CXCL12 axis.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 is a target of the RAN-GTP pathway and mediates migration, invasion and metastasis in human breast cancer

RAS-related nuclear protein(RAN) is a nuclear shuttle and normally regulates events in the cell cycle. When overexpressed in cultured cells, it causes increases in cell migration/invasion in vitro and its overexpression is associated with early breast cancer patient deaths in vivo. However, the underlying mechanism is unknown. The effect of RAN overexpression on potential targets MMP2, ATF3, CXCR3 was investigated by Real-Time PCR/Western blots in the triple receptor negative breast cancer(TRNBC) cell line MDA-MB231 and consequent biological effects were measured by cell adhesion, cell migration and cell invasion assays. Results showed that knockdown of RAN lead to a reduction of MMP2 and its potential regulators ATF3 and CXCR3. Moreover, knockdown of ATF3 or CXCR3 downregulated MMP2 without affecting RAN, indicating that RAN regulates MMP2 through ATF3 and CXCR3. Knockdown of RAN and MMP2 reduced cell adhesion, cell migration and cell growth in agar, whilst overexpression of MMP2 reversed the knockdown of RAN. Furthermore, immunohistochemical staining for RAN and MMP2 are positively associated with each other in the same tumour and separately with patient survival times in breast cancer specimens, suggesting that a high level of RAN may be a pre-requisite for MMP2 overexpression and metastasis. Moreover, positive immunohistochemical staining for both RAN and MMP-2 reduces further patient survival times over that for either protein separately. Our results suggest that MMP2 expression can stratify progression of breast cancers with a high and low incidence of RAN, both RAN and MMP2 in combination can be used for a more accurate patient prognosis. SIMPLE SUMMARY: Ran is an important regulator of normal cell growth and behaviour. We have established in cell line models of breast cancer (BC) a molecular pathway between RAN and its protein-degrading effector MMP-2 and properties related to metastasis in culture. Using immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining of primary BCs, we have shown that RAN and MMP-2 are on their own significantly associated with patient demise from metastatic BC. Moreover, when staining for MMP-2 is added to that for RAN in the primary tumours, there is a significant decrease in patient survival time over that for either protein alone. Thus a combination of staining for RAN and MMP2 is an excellent marker for poor prognosis in breast cancer.

Stellettin B Isolated from Stelletta Sp. Reduces Migration and Invasion of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells through Reducing Activation of the MAPKs and FAK/PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathways

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors, and there is currently a lack of effective treatment options to control the metastasis. This study was performed to examine the mechanisms of the migration and invasion characteristics of HCC, with the aim of reducing metastasis by inhibiting cancer cell migration and invasion. In this study, we used Stellettin B, an active compound isolated from Stelletta sponges, as the experimental drug and evaluated its inhibition effects on cell migration and invasion in human hepatoma cells (HA22T and HepG2). MTT assay, gelatin zymography, and western blotting were employed. The results showed that Stellettin B significantly inhibited the protein expressions of MMP-2, MMP-9, and uPA, while upregulating the protein expressions of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2. The expressions of p-FAK, p-PI3K, p-AKT, p-mTOR, and MAPKs (p-JNK, p-JUN, p-MAPKp38, and p-ERK) were decreased with increasing concentrations of Stellettin B. Our results suggest that Stellettin B-dependent downregulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9 activities could be mediated by FAK/PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPKs signaling pathways in HA22T and HepG2 cells, preventing HCC invasion and migration.

Investigating the Anticancer Activity of G-Rh1 Using In Silico and In Vitro Studies (A549 Lung Cancer Cells)

Ginsenoside Rh1 (G-Rh1), a possible bioactive substance isolated from the Korean Panax ginseng Meyer, has a wide range of pharmacological effects. In this study, we have investigated the anticancer efficacy of G-Rh1 via in silico and in vitro methodologies. This study mainly focuses on the two metastatic regulators, Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK1) and RhoA, along with other standard apoptosis regulators. The ROCK1 protein is a member of the active serine/threonine kinase family that is crucial for many biological processes, including cell division, differentiation, and death, as well as many cellular processes and muscle contraction. The abnormal activation of ROCK1 kinase causes several disorders, whereas numerous studies have also shown that RhoA is expressed highly in various cancers, including colon, lung, ovarian, gastric, and liver malignancies. Hence, inhibiting both ROCK1 and RhoA will be promising in preventing metastasis. Therefore, the molecular level interaction of G-Rh1 with the ROCK1 and RhoA active site residues from the preliminary screening clearly shows its inhibitory potential. Molecular dynamics simulation and principal component analysis give essential insights for comprehending the conformational changes that result from G-Rh1 binding to ROCK1 and RhoA. Further, MTT assay was employed to examine the potential cytotoxicity in vitro against human lung cancer cells (A549) and Raw 264.7 Murine macrophage cells. Thus, G-Rh1 showed significant cytotoxicity against human lung adenocarcinoma (A549) at 100 µg/mL. In addition, we observed an elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, perhaps promoting cancer cell toxicity. Additionally, G-Rh1 suppressed the mRNA expression of RhoA, ROCK1, MMP1, and MMP9 in cancer cell. Accordingly, G-Rh1 upregulated the p53, Bax, Caspase 3, caspase 9 while Bcl2 is downregulated intrinsic pathway. The findings from our study propose that the anticancer activity of G-Rh1 may be related to the induction of apoptosis by the RhoA/ROCK1 signaling pathway. As a result, this study evaluated the functional drug-like compound G-Rh1 from Panax ginseng in preventing and treating lung cancer adenocarcinoma via regulating metastasis and apoptosis.

Transcriptome Analysis of Human Glioblastoma Cells Susceptible to Infection with the Leningrad-16 Vaccine Strain of Measles Virus

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) accounts for almost half of all primary malignant brain tumors in adults and has a poor prognosis. Here we demonstrated the oncolytic potential of the L-16 vaccine strain of measles virus (MV) against primary human GBM cells and characterized the genetic patterns that determine the sensitivity of primary human GBM cells to oncolytic therapy. MV replicated in all GBM cells, and seven out of eight cell lines underwent complete or partial oncolysis. RNA-Seq analysis identified about 1200 differentially expressed genes (FDR < 0.05) with at least two-fold expression level change between MV-infected and uninfected cells. Among them, the most significant upregulation was observed for interferon response, apoptosis and cytokine signaling. One out of eight GBM cell lines was defective in type I interferon production and, thus, in the post-interferon response, other cells lacked expression of different cellular defense factors. Thus, none of the cell lines displayed induction of the total gene set necessary for effective inhibition of MV replication. In the resistant cells, we detected aberrant expression of metalloproteinase genes, particularly MMP3. Thus, such genes could be considered intriguing candidates for further study of factors responsible for cell sensitivity and resistance to L-16 MV infection.

A novel methylated cation channel TRPM4 inhibited colorectal cancer metastasis through Ca2+/Calpain-mediated proteolysis of FAK and suppression of PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is an aggressive malignancy with poor prognosis. It is imperative to elucidate the potential molecular mechanisms that regulate CRC cell aggressiveness. In present study, the transient receptor potential melastatin 4 (TRPM4), a calcium-activated nonselective cation channel, is downregulated in CRC as a novel methylated tumor suppressor gene (TSG). The reduced mRNA level of TRPM4 is due to the epigenetic methylation of its promoter CpG island (CGI). Moreover, ectopic expression of TRPM4 inhibited tumor growth and metastasis both in vitro and in vivo. Our experiments also demonstrate that TRPM4 restructures the CRC cytoskeleton and activates the Ca²⁺-mediated calpain pathway through enhancing calcium influx. The western blot analysis shows that the expression of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a calpain-mediated proteolytic substrate, is markedly suppressed after ectopic overexpression of TRPM4, besides, Akt (also known as protein kinase B, PKB), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) as well as its central target mTOR have significantly decreased expression accompanied by elevated E-cadherin and restrained matrix metalloproteinases (MMP2/MMP9) expression. The inhibition of protease calpain effectively relieves the retard of FAK/Akt signals and reverses the migration suppression of TRPM4. Taken together, TRPM4, identified as a novel methylated TSG, employs intracellular Ca²⁺ signals to activate calpain-mediated cleavage of FAK and impede CRC migration and invasion through modulating the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling cascade, providing the first evidence that TRPM4 is likely to be a significant biomarker and potential target for CRC therapy.

A concise review of VEGF, PDGF, FGF, Notch, angiopoietin, and HGF signalling in tumor angiogenesis with a focus on alternative approaches and future directions

Angiogenesis forms new vessels from existing ones. Abnormal angiogenesis, which is what gives tumor microenvironments their distinctive features, is characterised by convoluted, permeable blood vessels with a variety of shapes and high perfusion efficiency. Tumor angiogenesis controls cancer growth by allowing invasion and metastasis and is highly controlled by signalling networks. Therapeutic techniques targeting VEGF, PDGF, FGF Notch, Angiopoietin, and HGF signalling restrict the tumor's vascular supply. Numerous pathways regulate angiogenesis, and when one of those processes is blocked, the other pathways may step in to help. VEGF signalling inhibition alone has limits as an antiangiogenic therapy, and additional angiogenic pathways such as FGF, PDGF, Notch, angiopoietin, and HGF are important. For the treatment of advanced solid tumors, there are also new, emerging medicines that target multiple angiogenic pathways. Recent therapies block numerous signalling channels concurrently. This study focuses on 'alternative' methods to standard antiangiogenic medicines, such as cyclooxygenase-2 blocking, oligonucleotide binding complementary sites to noncoding RNAs to regulate mRNA target, matrix metalloproteinase inhibition and CRISPR/Cas9 based gene edition and dissecting alternative angiogenesis mechanism in tumor microenvironment.

Mechanism of Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium as an Anticancer Agent from the Perspective of Flavonoids: A Review

Citri Reticulatae Pericarpium (CRP), also known as “chenpi”, is the most common qi-regulating drug in traditional Chinese medicine. It is often used to treat cough and indigestion, but in recent years, it has been found to have multi-faceted anti-cancer effects. This article reviews the pharmacology of CRP and the mechanism of the action of flavonoids, the key components of CRP, against cancers including breast cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, hepatic carcinoma, gastric cancer, colorectal cancer, esophageal cancer, cervical cancer, bladder cancer and other cancers with a high diagnosis rate. Finally, the specific roles of CRP in important phenotypes such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy and migration–invasion in cancer were analyzed, and the possible prospects and deficiencies of CRP as an anticancer agent were evaluated.

Dose-time and Source-dependent Analysis of Intraoperative Radiotherapy-treated Seroma on Breast Cancer Cell Types: A Pilot Study

Background: Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT) is a novel approach to breast cancer (BC) treatment. Objectives: In this study, we compared the cellular and molecular effects of IORT-treated post-lumpectomy wound fluid (seroma) at the point of IOeRT versus IOxRT on the BC cell line. Methods: Immortalized human BC cell lines: MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and MCF10 were incubated with seroma from 3 groups of patients (as a pilot study). The first group received Intraoperative electron radiation therapy (IOeRT, Boost dose=12Gy), the second one received IOeRT (Radical dose=21Gy), and the third group was prescribed Intraoperative x-ray radiation therapy (IOxRT, X-ray=20Gy). Cellular and molecular tests were used to investigate how cells are influenced by the IORT-treated seroma. Results: We evaluated the effects of dose-time and source-dependent IORT-treated seroma on BC cell lines. In this study, we observed that IOxRT-treated seroma has the most significant effects on the reduction of proliferation, induced cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis. Furthermore, inhibited migration and invasion of BC cell lines were compared to IOeRT -treated seroma. Conclusions: Although this is a pilot study, we suggest that at 24 h, the IORT (specifically IOxRT)-treated seroma may play an important protective role in the breast tumor bed, which is followed by local recurrence decreases.

Experimental Evidence for the Anti-Metastatic Action of Ginsenoside Rg3: A Systematic Review

Cancer metastasis is the leading cause of death in cancer patients. Due to the limitations of conventional cancer treatment, such as chemotherapy, there is a need for novel therapeutics to prevent metastasis. Ginsenoside Rg3, a major active component of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, inhibits tumor growth and has the potential to prevent tumor metastasis. Herein, we systematically reviewed the anti-metastatic effects of Rg3 from experimental studies. We searched for articles in three research databases, MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) through March 2022. In total, 14 studies (eight animal and six in vitro) provide data on the anti-metastatic effects of Rg3 and the relevant mechanisms. The major anti-metastatic mechanisms of Rg3 involve cancer stemness, epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) behavior, and angiogenesis. Taken together, Rg3 would be one of the herbal resources in anti-metastatic drug developments through further well-designed investigations and clinical studies. Our review provides valuable reference data for Rg3-derived studies targeting tumor metastasis.

Multifunctional graphene oxide nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer

Recent advancements in nanotechnology have enabled us to develop sophisticated multifunctional nanoparticles or nanosystems for targeted diagnosis and treatment of several illnesses, including cancers. To effectively treat any solid tumor, the therapy should preferably target just the malignant cells/tissue with minor damage to normal cells/tissues. Graphene oxide (GO) nanoparticles have gained considerable interest owing to their two-dimensional planar structure, chemical/mechanical stability, excellent photosensitivity, superb conductivity, high surface area, and good biocompatibility in cancer therapy. Many compounds have been functionalized on the surface of GO to increase their biological applications and minimize cytotoxicity. The review presents an overview of the physicochemical characteristics, strategies for various modifications, toxicity and biocompatibility of graphene and graphene oxide, current trends in developing GO-based nano constructs as a drug delivery cargo and other biological applications, including chemo-photothermal therapy, chemo-photodynamic therapy, bioimaging, and theragnosis in cancer. Further, the review discusses the challenges and opportunities of GO, GO-based nanomaterials for the said applications. Overall, the review focuses on the therapeutic potential of strategically developed GO nanomedicines and comprehensively discusses their opportunities and challenges in cancer therapy.

Functional Nanoparticles for Enhanced Cancer Therapy

Cancer is the leading cause of death in people worldwide. The conventional therapeutic approach is mainly based on chemotherapy, which has a series of side effects. Compared with traditional chemotherapy drugs, nanoparticle-based delivery of anti-cancer drugs possesses a few attractive features. The application of nanotechnology in an interdisciplinary manner in the biomedical field has led to functional nanoparticles achieving much progress in cancer therapy. Nanoparticles have been involved in the diagnosis and targeted and personalized treatment of cancer. For example, different nano-drug strategies, including endogenous and exogenous stimuli-responsive, surface conjugation, and macromolecular encapsulation for nano-drug systems, have successfully prevented tumor procession. The future for functional nanoparticles is bright and promising due to the fast development of nanotechnology. However, there are still some challenges and limitations that need to be considered. Based on the above contents, the present article analyzes the progress in developing functional nanoparticles in cancer therapy. Research gaps and promising strategies for the clinical application are discussed.

Regulation and Function of Matrix Metalloproteinase-13 in Cancer Progression and Metastasis

Matrix metalloproteinase-13 (MMP-13) is a member of the Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) family of endopeptidases. MMP-13 is produced in low amounts and is well-regulated during normal physiological conditions. Its expression and secretion are, however, increased in various cancers, where it plays multiple roles in tumour progression and metastasis. As an interstitial collagenase, MMP-13 can proteolytically cleave not only collagens I, II and III, but also a range of extracellular matrix proteins (ECMs). Its action causes ECM remodelling and often leads to the release of various sequestered growth and angiogenetic factors that promote tumour cell growth, invasion and angiogenesis. This review summarizes our current understanding of the regulation of MMP-13 expression and secretion and discusses the actions of MMP-13 in cancer progression and metastasis.

Beyond the thrombus: Platelet-inspired nanomedicine approaches in inflammation, immune response, and cancer

The traditional role of platelets is in the formation of blood clots for physiologic (e.g., in hemostasis) or pathologic (e.g., in thrombosis) functions. The cellular and subcellular mechanisms and signaling in platelets involved in these functions have been extensively elucidated and new knowledge continues to emerge, resulting in various therapeutic developments in this area for the management of hemorrhagic or thrombotic events. Nanomedicine, a field involving design of nanoparticles with unique biointeractive surface modifications and payload encapsulation for disease-targeted drug delivery, has become an important component of such therapeutic development. Beyond their traditional role in blood clotting, platelets have been implicated to play crucial mechanistic roles in other diseases including inflammation, immune response, and cancer, via direct cellular interactions, as well as secretion of soluble factors that aid in the disease microenvironment. To date, the development of nanomedicine systems that leverage these broader roles of platelets has been limited. Additionally, another exciting area of research that has emerged in recent years is that of platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) that can directly and indirectly influence physiological and pathological processes. This makes PEVs a unique paradigm for platelet-inspired therapeutic design. This review aims to provide mechanistic insight into the involvement of platelets and PEVs beyond hemostasis and thrombosis, and to discuss the current state of the art in the development of platelet-inspired therapeutic technologies in these areas, with an emphasis on future opportunities.

Synthesis and Anticancer Activity of Rhopaladins’ Analog RPDPD Against the HeLa Human Cervical Cancer Cell Line

Heterocyclic compounds were widely used in many domains; pyrrolidone is a derivative of heterocycles that can be used to synthesize anticancer drugs. A new fluorine-containing rhopaladins’ analog(E)-2-(4-bromobenzoyl)-N-(tert-butyl)-4-(4-fluoro benzylidene)-5-oxo-1-propylpyrrolidine-2-carboxamide (RPDPD for short) of 2-aroyl-4-arylidene-5-oxopyrrolidine derivative was synthesized by the one-pot synthesis method and evaluated for its anti-tumor activity in vitro via CCK8 assay and annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) staining of HeLa cells. The results exhibited that compound RPDPD has inhibited the proliferation of HeLa in a dose-dependent manner with an IC₅₀ of 24.23 μmol/L (p < 0.05) and has low hepatotoxicity with an IC₅₀ of 235.6 μmol/L (p < 0.05) to normal hepatocyte LO2 cells. The apoptotic assay demonstrated that compound RPDPD has induced apoptosis in HeLa cells (from 14.26 to 23.4%, p < 0.05). qRT-PCR results showed that the compound RPDPD could inhibit the expression of oncogene E6/E7 mRNA (p < 0.05) of human papillomavirus (HPV). The results of Western blot showed that the compound RPDPD promoted the expression of TIMP3 protein and inhibited the expression of MMP3 (p < 0.05). In conclusion, the compound RPDPD can inhibit the proliferation of cervical cancer cells and induce the apoptosis of cervical cancer cells, and its mechanism may be related to the inhibition of E6 mRNA and E7 mRNA expressions, and the anticancer effect of the compound RPDPD on cervical cancer is closely related to the TIMP3/MMP3 signaling axis.

Tumor Cell-Induced Platelet Aggregation as an Emerging Therapeutic Target for Cancer Therapy

Tumor cells have the ability to induce platelet activation and aggregation. This has been documented to be involved in tumor progression in several types of cancers, such as lung, colon, breast, pancreatic, ovarian, and brain. During the process, platelets protect circulating tumor cells from the deleterious effects of shear forces, shield tumor cells from the immune system, and provide growth factors, facilitating metastatic spread and tumor growth at the original site as well as at the site of metastasis. Herein, we present a wider view on the induction of platelet aggregation by specific factors primarily developed by cancer, including coagulation factors, adhesion receptors, growth factors, cysteine proteases, matrix metalloproteinases, glycoproteins, soluble mediators, and selectins. These factors may be presented on the surface of tumor cells as well as in their microenvironment, and some may trigger more than just one simple receptor-ligand mechanism. For a better understanding, we briefly discuss the physiological role of the factors in the platelet activation process, and subsequently, we provide scientific evidence and discuss their potential role in the progression of specific cancers. Targeting tumor cell-induced platelet aggregation (TCIPA) by antiplatelet drugs may open ways to develop new treatment modalities. On the one hand, it may affect patients' prognosis by enhancing known therapies in advanced-stage tumors. On the other hand, the use of drugs that are mostly easily accessible and widely used in general practice may be an opportunity to propose an unparalleled antitumor prophylaxis. In this review, we present the recent discoveries of mechanisms by which cancer cells activate platelets, and discuss new platelet-targeted therapeutic strategies.

Trident Molecule with Nanobrush-Nanoparticle-Nanofiber Transition Property Spatially Suppresses Tumor Metastasis

Metastasis-induced high mortality of cancers urgently demands new approaches to simultaneously inhibit primary tumor metastasis and distant tumor growth. Herein, by rational design of a trident molecule Nap-Phe-Phe-Lys(SA-CPT)-Lys(SA-HCQ)-Tyr(H₂PO₃)-OH (Nap-CPT-HCQ-Yp) with three functional "spears" (i.e., a phosphotyrosine motif for enzymatic self-assembly, camptothecin (CPT) motif for chemotherapy, and hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) motif for autophagy inhibition) and nanobrush-nanoparticle-nanofiber transition property, we propose a novel strategy of intracellular enzymatic nanofiber formation and synergistic autophagy inhibition-enhanced chemotherapy and immunotherapy for spatial suppression of tumor metastasis. Under sequential alkaline phosphatase catalysis and carboxylesterase hydrolysis, Nap-CPT-HCQ-Yp undergoes nanobrush-nanoparticle-nanofiber transition, accompanied by the releases of CPT and HCQ. The formed intracellular nanofibers effectively inhibit the metastasis and invasion behaviors of cancer cells. Meanwhile, the released CPT and HCQ synergistically induce a prominent therapeutic effect through autophagy inhibition-enhanced chemotherapy. Furthermore, chemotherapy of Nap-CPT-HCQ-Yp enhances immunogenic cell death, resulting in the activation of toxic T-cells. Finally, a combination of checkpoint blockade therapy and Nap-CPT-HCQ-Yp-mediated chemotherapy elicits systemic antitumor immunity, thereby achieving efficient inhibitions of primary tumors as well as distant tumors in a breast tumor model. Our work offers a simple and feasible strategy for the design of "smart" multifunctional prodrugs to spatially suppress tumor metastasis.

Tumor-Inhibitory Effects of Zerumbone Against HT-29 Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second cause of cancer-associated death globally. Recently, herbal medicinal products and, in particular, zerumbone have been widely studied and used for cancer treatment as they induce significant anti-cancer effects. However, there is limited information about the anti-cancer effects of zerumbone in CRC. Therefore, we aimed to investigate the in vitro anti-cancer effects of the zerumbone in CRC, focusing on cell apoptosis and migration. Anti-proliferative and anti-migratory effects of zerumbone on HT-29 cells were evaluated using MTT and scratch wound healing assay, respectively. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) was performed to determine the mRNA expression levels of migration and apoptosis-related genes. Apoptosis and cell cycle distribution were evaluated by flow cytometry. The intracellular level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was measured using a ROS assay kit. Additionally, matrix metalloproteinase-2/-9 (MMP-2/-9) activity was determined using gelatin zymography. Zerumbone suppressed the viability of the HT-29 cells dose-dependently while having less cytotoxicity on normal NIH/3T3 cells. Zerumbone induced apoptosis in HT-29 cells and arrested the cell cycle in the G2/M phase. These effects were associated with alteration in the expression of apoptosis-related genes (up-regulation of Bax and down-regulation of Bcl-2 genes). Zerumbone also enhanced the generation of ROS in HT-29 cells. Furthermore, zerumbone significantly inhibited the migration of HT-29 cells and decreased MMP-2/-9 mRNA expression and activity. Our findings provide a potential use for zerumbone to induce apoptosis and suppress metastasis in HT-29 cells; thus, it could be developed as a promising natural agent for future CRC therapy.

Lycopene in Combination With Sorafenib Additively Inhibits Tumor Metastasis in Mice Xenografted With Lewis Lung Carcinoma Cells

Cancer metastasis is the leading cause of death in cancer patients. However, it is unclear whether lycopene can act as an adjuvant to increase the anti-metastatic activity of anticancer drugs. Here, we examined the anti-lung-metastatic effects and the mechanism of lycopene in combination with sorafenib in C57BL/6 mice xenografted with Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) cells. The mice were divided into five groups: (1) tumor control; (2) lycopene (5 mg/kg); (3) sorafenib (30 mg/kg); (4) lycopene (2 mg/kg) + sorafenib (30 mg/kg); (5) lycopene (5 mg/kg) + sorafenib (30 mg/kg). The results showed that lycopene reduced the number of metastatic tumors in the lungs, which was further suppressed by the combined treatment with sorafenib. The activities of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and−9 were further inhibited and TIMP-1 and−2, and NM23-H1, the MMPs negative modulators, were further activated in the combined treatment. Mechanistically, we found that lycopene and sorafenib could additively inhibit the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, as shown by the protein phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK1/2 and p38 were reduced additively. Overall, the present study demonstrates that lycopene in combination with sorafenib additively inhibits the lung metastasis of tumor, indicating lycopene has potential as an adjuvant for sorafenib in cancer treatment.

The Effect of Encapsulated Apigenin Nanoparticles on HePG-2 Cells through Regulation of P53

Apigenin (Ap) is one of the most important natural flavonoids that has potent anticancer activity. This study was designed, for the first time, to load Ap into chitosan to improve its hydrophobicity and then it was coated with albumin-folic acid to increase its stability and bioavailability and to target cancer cells. The newly developed encapsulated Ap (Ap-CH-BSA-FANPs) was characterized and tested in vitro. The zeta potential of −17.0 mV was within the recommended range (−30 mV to +30 mV), indicating that encapsulated apigenin would not quickly settle and would be suspended. The in vitro results proved the great anticancer activity of the encapsulated apigenin on HePG-2 cells compared to pure Ap. The treated HePG-2 cells with Ap-CH-BSA-FANPs demonstrated the induction of apoptosis by increasing p53 gene expression, arresting the cell cycle, increasing caspase-9 levels, and decreasing both the MMP9 gene and Bcl-2 protein expression levels. Moreover, the higher antioxidant activity of the encapsulated apigenin treatment was evident through increasing SOD levels and decreasing the CAT concentration. In conclusion, the Ap-CH-BSA-FANPs were easy to produce with low coast, continued drug release, good loading capacity, high solubility in physiological pH, and were more stable than the formerly Ap-loaded liposomes or PLGA. Moreover, Ap-CH-BSA-FANPs may be a promising chemotherapeutic agent in the treatment of HCC.

Complex cross-talk between EZH2 and miRNAs confers hallmark characteristics and shapes the tumor microenvironment

Cancer epigenetic mechanisms support the acquisition of hallmark characteristics during oncogenesis. EZH2 - an important histone methyltransferase that writes histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation marks - is known to be dysregulated in cancer cells. However, the interactions between EZH2 and miRNAs that form a complex network of cross-talk and reciprocal regulation that enable cancer cells to acquire hallmark characteristics have been relatively poorly appreciated. The specific functions of EZH2 appear to be regulated by a vast array of miRNAs, which direct EZH2 toward regulation over the development of specific hallmark characteristics. This review discusses recent advances in the understanding of EZH2, focusing on its collaboration with miRNAs to orchestrate oncogenesis. These epigenetic processes promote the evasion of apoptosis/cell cycle arrest, cellular dedifferentiation and the establishment of a tumor microenvironment that facilitates local cancer cell invasion, anti-cancer drug resistance and evasion of the immune response.