Genetics of Anxiety Disorders

Mortality in adult children of parents with alcohol use disorder: a nationwide register study

Research suggests that adult children of parents with harmful alcohol use are at increased risk for premature death. This national cohort study investigated mortality in adult children of parents with alcohol use disorder (AUD), adjusting for sociodemographic variables. The study used 1973 to 2018 data from Swedish national registers to compare mortality risk in children who had ≥ 1 parent with AUD (ICD-10 code F10 and its ICD-8 and ICD-9 equivalents) (n = 122,947) and those who did not (n = 2,298,532). A Cox regression model adjusted for year of birth, sex, parental education, and childhood loss of a parent was used. Before the age of 18 years, about 5% of children born in Sweden lived with ≥ 1 parent who had a clinical diagnosis of AUD. Overall mortality was higher in adult children of parents with AUD: hazard ratio (HR) 1.76, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.71-1.82. Mortality remained elevated after adjustments for sociodemographic factors (HR 1.45, 95% CI 1.40-1.50). Children of parents with AUD had increased mortality from all investigated causes. The highest excess risk was for death from drug-related causes (excluding accidental poisonings) (HR 3.08, 95% CI 2.74-3.46). For most causes, mortality was higher if the mother had AUD than if the father had AUD. Patterns of mortality were similar in both sexes. This study provides evidence that parental AUD raises the risk of offspring mortality from preventable causes such as drug use, suicide (HR 2.16, 95% CI 1.98-2.36), accident (HR 2.00, 95% CI 1.87-2.13), and assault (HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.38-2.24).

A genetic association study reveals the relationship between the oral microbiome and anxiety and depression symptoms

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence supports that alterations in the gut microbiota play an essential role in the etiology of anxiety, depression, and other psychiatric disorders. However, the potential effect of oral microbiota on mental health has received little attention.

METHODS

Using the latest genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary data of the oral microbiome, polygenic risk scores (PRSs) of 285 salivary microbiomes and 309 tongue dorsum microbiomes were conducted. Logistic and linear regression models were applied to evaluate the relationship between salivary-tongue dorsum microbiome interactions with anxiety and depression. Two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) was utilized to compute the causal effects between the oral microbiome, anxiety, and depression.

RESULTS

We observed significant salivary-tongue dorsum microbiome interactions related to anxiety and depression traits. Significantly, one common interaction was observed to be associated with both anxiety score and depression score, Centipeda periodontii SGB 224 × Granulicatella uSGB 3289 (P _{depressionscore} = 1.41 × 10^-8, P _anxietyscore = 5.10 × 10^-8). Furthermore, we detected causal effects between the oral microbiome and anxiety and depression. Importantly, we identified one salivary microbiome associated with both anxiety and depression in both the UKB database and the Finngen public database, Eggerthia (P _{IVW - majordepression - UKB} = 2.99 × 10^-6, P _{IVW - Self - reportedanxiety/panicattacks - UKB} = 3.06 × 10^-59, P _{IVW - depression - Finngen} = 3.16 × 10 , - 16 P _{IVW - anxiety - Finngen} = 1.14 × 10^-115).

CONCLUSION

This study systematically explored the relationship between the oral microbiome and anxiety and depression, which could help improve our understanding of disease pathogenesis and propose new diagnostic targets and early intervention strategies.

ENIGMA-anxiety working group: Rationale for and organization of large-scale neuroimaging studies of anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent and disabling but seem particularly tractable to investigation with translational neuroscience methodologies. Neuroimaging has informed our understanding of the neurobiology of anxiety disorders, but research has been limited by small sample sizes and low statistical power, as well as heterogenous imaging methodology. The ENIGMA-Anxiety Working Group has brought together researchers from around the world, in a harmonized and coordinated effort to address these challenges and generate more robust and reproducible findings. This paper elaborates on the concepts and methods informing the work of the working group to date, and describes the initial approach of the four subgroups studying generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. At present, the ENIGMA-Anxiety database contains information about more than 100 unique samples, from 16 countries and 59 institutes. Future directions include examining additional imaging modalities, integrating imaging and genetic data, and collaborating with other ENIGMA working groups. The ENIGMA consortium creates synergy at the intersection of global mental health and clinical neuroscience, and the ENIGMA-Anxiety Working Group extends the promise of this approach to neuroimaging research on anxiety disorders.

The role of pharmacogenetics in the treatment of anxiety disorders and the future potential for targeted therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

Anxiety disorders (AD) are among the most common mental disorders worldwide. Pharmacotherapy, including benzodiazepines, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and tricyclic antidepressants is currently based on 'trial-and-error,' and is effective in a subset of patients or produces partial response only. Recent research proposes that treatment response and tolerability of the drugs are associated with genetic factors.

AREAS COVERED

In the present review, we provide information on pharmacogenetics (PGx) in AD, including pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic genes. Moreover, we discuss the future potential of PGx for personalized treatment.

EXPERT OPINION

In psychiatry, PGx testing is still in its infancy, especially in the treatment of AD. As of today, implementation in clinical routine is recommended only for CYP2D6 and CYP2C19, mainly in terms of safety of treatment and potentially of treatment outcome in general. However, the evidence for PGx testing addressing pharmacodynamics for specific AD is limited to date. Nevertheless, PGx may develop into a valuable and promising tool to improve therapy in AD, but there is a need for more research to fully exploit its possibilities. Future perspectives include research into single genes, polygenic risk scores, and pharmacoepigenetics to provide targeted therapy.

Genetic contributions to anxiety disorders: where we are and where we are heading

Anxiety disorders are among the most common psychiatric disorders worldwide. They often onset early in life, with symptoms and consequences that can persist for decades. This makes anxiety disorders some of the most debilitating and costly disorders of our time. Although much is known about the synaptic and circuit mechanisms of fear and anxiety, research on the underlying genetics has lagged behind that of other psychiatric disorders. However, alongside the formation of the Psychiatric Genomic Consortium Anxiety workgroup, progress is rapidly advancing, offering opportunities for future research.Here we review current knowledge about the genetics of anxiety across the lifespan from genetically informative designs (i.e. twin studies and molecular genetics). We include studies of specific anxiety disorders (e.g. panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder) as well as those using dimensional measures of trait anxiety. We particularly address findings from large-scale genome-wide association studies and show how such discoveries may provide opportunities for translation into improved or new therapeutics for affected individuals. Finally, we describe how discoveries in anxiety genetics open the door to numerous new research possibilities, such as the investigation of specific gene-environment interactions and the disentangling of causal associations with related traits and disorders.We discuss how the field of anxiety genetics is expected to move forward. In addition to the obvious need for larger sample sizes in genome-wide studies, we highlight the need for studies among young people, focusing on specific underlying dimensional traits or components of anxiety.

A review of systems biology research of anxiety disorders

The development of "omic" technologies and deep phenotyping may facilitate a systems biology approach to understanding anxiety disorders. Systems biology approaches incorporate data from multiple modalities (e.g., genomic, neuroimaging) with functional analyses (e.g., animal and tissue culture models) and mathematical modeling (e.g., machine learning) to investigate pathological biophysical networks at various scales. Here we review: i) the neurobiology of anxiety disorders; ii) how systems biology approaches have advanced this work; and iii) the clinical implications and future directions of this research. Systems biology approaches have provided an improved functional understanding of candidate biomarkers and have suggested future potential for refining the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of anxiety disorders. The systems biology approach for anxiety disorders is, however, in its infancy and in some instances is characterized by insufficient power and replication. The studies reviewed here represent important steps to further untangling the pathophysiology of anxiety disorders.

Anxiety-related defensive behavioral responses in mice selectively bred for High and Low Activity

High and Low Activity strains of mice (displaying low and high anxiety-like behavior, respectively) with 7.8-20 fold differences in open-field activity were selected and subsequently inbred to use as a genetic model for studying anxiety-like behavior in mice (DeFries et al., 1978, Behavior Genetics, 8:3-13). These strains exhibited differences in other anxiety-related behaviors as assessed using the light-dark box, elevated plus-maze, mirror chamber, and elevated square-maze tests (Henderson et al., 2004, Behavior Genetics, 34: 267-293). The purpose of these experiments was three-fold. First, we repeated a 6-day behavioral battery using updated equipment and software to confirm the extreme differences in anxiety-like behaviors. Second, we tested novel object exploration, a measure of anxiety-like behavior that does not rely heavily on locomotion. Third, we conducted a home cage wheel running experiment to determine whether these strains differ in locomotor activity in a familiar, home cage environment. Our behavioral test battery confirmed extreme differences in multiple measures of anxiety-like behaviors. Furthermore, the novel object test demonstrated that the High Activity mice exhibited decreased anxiety-like behaviors (increased nose pokes) compared to Low Activity mice. Finally, male Low Activity mice ran nearly twice as far each day on running wheels compared to High Activity mice, while female High and Low Activity mice did not differ in wheel running. These results support the idea that the behavioral differences between High and Low Activity mice are likely to be due to anxiety-related factors and not simply generalized differences in locomotor activity.

Self-reported medication use as an alternate phenotyping method for anxiety and depression in the UK Biobank

The requirement for large sample sizes for psychiatric genetic analyses necessitates novel approaches to derive cases. Anxiety and depression show substantial genetic overlap and share pharmacological treatments. Data on prescribed medication could be effective for inferring case status when other indicators of mental health are unavailable. We investigated self-reported current medication use in UK Biobank participants of European ancestry. Medication Status cases reported using antidepressant or anxiolytic medication (n = 22,218), controls did not report psychotropic medication use (n = 168,959). A subset, "Medication Only," additionally did not meet criteria for any other mental health indicator (case n = 2,643, control n = 107,029). We assessed genetic overlap between these phenotypes and two published genetic association studies of anxiety and depression, and an internalizing disorder trait derived from symptom-based questionnaires in UK Biobank. Genetic correlations between Medication Status and the three anxiety and depression phenotypes were significant (r_g  = 0.60-0.73). In the Medication Only subset, the genetic correlation with depression was significant (r_g  = 0.51). The three polygenic scores explained 0.33% - 0.80% of the variance in Medication Status and 0.07% - 0.19% of the variance in Medication Only. This study provides evidence that self-reported current medication use offers an alternate or supplementary anxiety or depression phenotype in genetic studies where diagnostic information is sparse or unavailable.

Evolution of Boldness and Exploratory Behavior in Giant Mice from Gough Island

Island populations are hallmarks of extreme phenotypic evolution. Radical changes in resource availability and predation risk accompanying island colonization drive changes in behavior, which Darwin likened to tameness in domesticated animals. Although many examples of animal boldness are found on islands, the heritability of observed behaviors, a requirement for evolution, remains largely unknown. To fill this gap, we profiled anxiety and exploration in island and mainland inbred strains of house mice raised in a common laboratory environment. The island strain was descended from mice on Gough Island, the largest wild house mice on record. Experiments utilizing open environments across two ages showed that Gough Island mice are bolder and more exploratory, even when a shelter is provided. Concurrently, Gough Island mice retain an avoidance response to predator urine. F1 offspring from crosses between these two strains behave more similarly to the mainland strain for most traits, suggesting recessive mutations contributed to behavioral evolution on the island. Our results provide a rare example of novel, inherited behaviors in an island population and demonstrate that behavioral evolution can be specific to different forms of perceived danger. Our discoveries pave the way for a genetic understanding of how island populations evolve unusual behaviors.

CPNE3 moderates the association between anxiety and working memory

Mutual influences between anxiety and working memory (WM) have been extensively studied, and their curvilinear relationship resembles the classic Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal and performance. Given the genetic bases of both anxiety and WM, it is likely that the individual differences in the Yerkes-Dodson law of anxiety and WM may have genetic correlates. The current genome wide association study (GWAS) enrolled 1115 healthy subjects to search for genes that are potential moderators of the association between anxiety and WM. Results showed that CPNE3 rs10102229 had the strongest effect, p = 3.38E−6 at SNP level and p = 2.68E−06 at gene level. Anxiety and WM had a significant negative correlation (i.e., more anxious individuals performed worse on the WM tasks) for the TT genotype of rs10102229 (resulting in lower expression of CPNE3), whereas the correlation was positive (i.e., more anxious individuals performed better on the WM tasks) for the CC carriers. The same pattern of results was found at the gene level using gene score analysis. These effects were replicated in an independent sample (N = 330). The current study is the first to report a gene that moderates the relation between anxiety and WM and potentially provides a genetic explanation for the classic Yerkes-Dodson law.

Anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders form the most common group of mental disorders and generally start before or in early adulthood. Core features include excessive fear and anxiety or avoidance of perceived threats that are persistent and impairing. Anxiety disorders involve dysfunction in brain circuits that respond to danger. Risk for anxiety disorders is influenced by genetic factors, environmental factors, and their epigenetic relations. Anxiety disorders are often comorbid with one another and with other mental disorders, especially depression, as well as with somatic disorders. Such comorbidity generally signifies more severe symptoms, greater clinical burden, and greater treatment difficulty. Reducing the large burden of disease from anxiety disorders in individuals and worldwide can be best achieved by timely, accurate disease detection and adequate treatment administration, scaling up of treatments when needed. Evidence-based psychotherapy (particularly cognitive behavioural therapy) and psychoactive medications (particularly serotonergic compounds) are both effective, facilitating patients' choices in therapeutic decisions. Although promising, no enduring preventive measures are available, and, along with frequent therapy resistance, clinical needs remain unaddressed. Ongoing research efforts tackle these problems, and future efforts should seek individualised, more effective approaches for treatment with precision medicine.

Individual, Prenatal, Perinatal, and Family Factors for Anxiety Symptoms Among Preschool Children

Anxiety is one of the most common psychological disorders among children. Few studies have investigated the prevalence and comprehensive factors for anxiety among preschool children in China. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of anxiety and explore influential factors at multiple levels including individual, prenatal and perinatal, and family factors, associated with anxiety symptoms among preschool children. The multisite cross-sectional study was conducted in Anhui Province and included 3,636 preschool children aged 3-6 years. Anxiety symptoms of children were assessed using the Chinese version of the Spence Preschool Anxiety Scale. Logistic regression analyses were performed to explore associations between factors at multiple levels and significant anxiety symptoms, and the model was validated internally using 10-fold cross-validation. Among the participants, 9.1% of children had significant anxiety symptoms. Girls reported more significant anxiety symptoms. Children's poor dietary habits, sleep disturbances, autistic tendencies, and left-behind experience; maternal poor prenatal emotional symptoms; and more caregivers' anxiety symptoms were significantly associated with anxiety symptoms among children. The result of 10-fold cross-validation indicated that the mean area under the curve, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy were 0.78, 70.45%, 78.18%, and 71.15%, respectively. These factors were slightly different among different subtypes of anxiety symptoms. The results of this study suggested that anxiety symptoms in preschool children were prevalent, particularly in girls. Understanding early-life risk factors for anxiety is crucial, and efficient prevention and intervention strategies should be implemented in early childhood even pregnancy.

Identification of Gene Loci That Overlap Between Mental Disorders and Poor Prognosis of Cancers

Background: Co-morbid psychiatric disorders are common in patients with cancers, which make the treatment more difficult. Studying the connection between mental disease-related genes and the prognosis of cancers may potentially lead to novel therapeutic methods. Method: All mental disorders genes were selected from published articles. The correlations between the expression of these genes and the prognosis of different cancers were analyzed by starBase v2.0 and TIMER. The molecular functions, reactome pathways, and interactions among diverse genes were explored via the STRING tool. Results: 239 genes were identified for further survival analysis, 5 of which were overlapping genes across at least five cancer types, including RHEBL1, PDE4B, ANKRD55, EPHB2, and GIMAP7. 146 high-expression and 157 low-expression genes were found to be correlated with the unfavorable prognosis of diverse cancer types. Tight links existed among various mental disease genes. Besides, risk genes were mostly related to the dismal outcome of low-grade glioma (LGG) and kidney renal clear cell carcinoma (KIRC) patients. Gene Ontology (GO) and reactome pathway analysis revealed that most genes involved in various critical molecular functions and primarily related to metabolism, signal transduction, and hemostasis. Conclusions: To explore co-expression genes between mental illnesses and cancers may aid in finding preventive strategies and therapeutic methods for high-risk populations and patients with one or more diseases.

Corticotropin-releasing factor infusion in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of lactating mice alters maternal care and induces behavioural phenotypes in offspring

The peripartum period is accompanied by numerous physiological and behavioural adaptations organised by the maternal brain. These changes are essential for adequate expression of maternal behaviour, thereby ensuring proper development of the offspring. The corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) plays a key role in a variety of behaviours accompanying stress, anxiety, and depression. There is also evidence that CRF contributes to maladaptations during the peripartum period. We investigated the effects of CRF in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) of lactating mice during maternal care and analysed locomotor activity and anxiety-like behaviour in the offspring. The BNST has been implicated in anxiety behaviour and regulation of the stress response. The effects of intra-BNST CRF administration were compared with those induced by the limited bedding (LB) procedure, a model that produces altered maternal behaviour. BALB/cJ dams were exposed to five infusions of CRF or saline into the BNST in the first weeks after birth while the LB dams were exposed to limited nesting material from postnatal days (P) 2–9. Maternal behaviour was recorded in intercalated days, from P1-9. Offspring anxiety-like behaviour was assessed during adulthood using the open-field, elevated plus-maze, and light/dark tests. Both intra-BNST CRF and LB exposure produced altered maternal care, represented by decreased arched-back nursing and increased frequency of exits from the nest. These changes in maternal care resulted in robust sex-based differences in the offspring’s behavioural responses during adulthood. Females raised by CRF-infused dams exhibited increased anxiety-like behaviour, whereas males presented a significant decrease in anxiety. On the other hand, both males and females raised by dams exposed to LB showed higher locomotor activity. Our study demonstrates that maternal care is impaired by intra-BNST CRF administrations, and these maladaptations are similar to exposure to adverse early environments. These procedures, however, produce distinct phenotypes in mice during young adulthood and suggest sex-based differences in the susceptibility to poor maternal care.

Whole-Genome Sequencing of Inbred Mouse Strains Selected for High and Low Open-Field Activity

We conducted whole-genome sequencing of four inbred mouse strains initially selected for high (H1, H2) or low (L1, L2) open-field activity (OFA), and then examined strain distribution patterns for all DNA variants that differed between their BALB/cJ and C57BL/6J parental strains. Next, we assessed genome-wide sharing (3,678,826 variants) both between and within the High and Low Activity strains. Results suggested that about 10% of these DNA variants may be associated with OFA, and clearly demonstrated its polygenic nature. Finally, we conducted bioinformatic analyses of functional genomics data from mouse, rat, and human to refine previously identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) for anxiety-related measures. This combination of sequence analysis and genomic-data integration facilitated refinement of previously intractable QTL findings, and identified possible genes for functional follow-up studies.

Genome-wide association study of shared liability to anxiety disorders in Army STARRS

Anxiety disorders (ANX), namely generalized anxiety, panic disorder, and phobias, are common, etiologically complex syndromes that show increasing prevalence and comorbidity throughout adolescence and beyond. Few genome-wide association studies (GWAS) examining ANX risk have been published and almost exclusively in individuals of European ancestry. In this study, we phenotyped participants from the Army Study To Assess Risk and Resilience in Servicemembers (STARRS) to approximate DSM-based ANX diagnoses. We factor-analyzed those to create a single dimensional anxiety score for each subject. GWAS were conducted using that score within each of three ancestral groups (EUR, AFR, LAT) and then meta-analyzed across ancestries (NTotal = 16,510). We sought to (a) replicate prior ANX GWAS findings in ANGST; (b) determine whether results extended to other ancestry groups; and (c) meta-analyze with ANGST for increased power to identify novel susceptibility loci. No reliable genome-wide significant SNP associations were detected in STARRS. However, SNPs within the CAMKMT gene located in region 2p21 associated with shared ANX risk in ANGST were replicated in EUR soldiers but not other ancestry groups. Combining EUR STARRS and ANGST (N = 28,950) yielded a more robust 2p21 association signal (p = 9.08x10-11 ). Gene-based analyses supported three genes within 2p21 and LBX1 on chromosome 10. More powerful ANX genetic studies will be required to identify further loci.

Genetic and epigenetic analyses of panic disorder in the post-GWAS era

Panic disorder (PD) is a common and debilitating neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by panic attacks coupled with excessive anxiety. Both genetic factors and environmental factors play an important role in PD pathogenesis and response to treatment. However, PD is clinically heterogeneous and genetically complex, and the exact genetic or environmental causes of this disorder remain unclear. Various approaches for detecting disease-causing genes have recently been made available. In particular, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have attracted attention for the identification of disease-associated loci of multifactorial disorders. This review introduces GWAS of PD, followed by a discussion about the limitations of GWAS and the major challenges facing geneticists in the post-GWAS era. Alternative strategies to address these challenges are then proposed, such as epigenome-wide association studies (EWAS) and rare variant association studies (RVAS) using next-generation sequencing. To date, however, few reports have described these analyses, and the evidence remains insufficient to confidently identify or exclude rare variants or epigenetic changes in PD. Further analyses are therefore required, using sample sizes in the tens of thousands, extensive functional annotations, and highly targeted hypothesis testing.

Pharmacogenetics of anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders are common and disabling conditions the treatment of which remains a challenge. While different groups of medication are available for their treatment, a substantial proportion of patients remain refractory to pharmacotherapy. The reason for this variation in the individual response to treatment has yet to be understood; however genetic factors have been shown to play an important role. Up to now there have been limited publications about pharmacogenetics of anxiety disorders, compared to studies in depression. Published studies are focused on pharmacogenetics of antidepressants rather than being disease specific. This review summarizes pharmacogenetic findings related to the anxiolytic treatment response and their possible functional mechanisms. This inevitably focuses on genes involved in the pharmacodynamics of the medications used, along with some genes implicated in the disease process, as well as briefly mentioning genetic factors associated with psychotherapeutic response.

Social support, emotion regulation and mindfulness: A linkage towards social anxiety among adolescents attending secondary schools in Birgunj, Nepal

There has been a growing burden of anxiety among Nepalese adolescents. Social anxiety in particular is one of the commonly reported symptoms indicating mental health problem among adolescents. The purpose of this study was to assess social anxiety, and identify how social support, emotion regulation and mindfulness uniquely contribute to social anxiety among adolescents in Birgunj, Nepal. The study was conducted by using a self-administered questionnaire among 384 adolescents (65.4% boys; M = 16.05 years, SD = 1.39) studying at secondary schools of Birgunj. Results show that there was a positive correlation between social anxiety symptoms and age, and girls reported more symptoms. Traits such as non-acceptance of emotions, lack of clarity and lack of awareness of emotions were related to increased social anxiety; while acting with awareness, non-reactivity, and better ability to describe emotions was related to decreased social anxiety. Finally, more social support from close friends was related to lower social anxiety. These results suggest that improving emotion regulation, dispositional mindfulness, and social support may be helpful for adolescents who are at risk of, or are suffering from, social anxiety.

PET imaging on neurofunctional changes after optogenetic stimulation in a rat model of panic disorder

Panic disorder (PD) is an acute paroxysmal anxiety disorder with poorly understood pathophysiology. The dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG) is involved in the genesis of PD. However, the downstream neurofunctional changes of the dPAG during panic attacks have yet to be evaluated in vivo. In this study, optogenetic stimulation to the dPAG was performed to induce panic-like behaviors, and in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) imaging with ¹⁸F-flurodeoxyglucose (¹⁸F-FDG) was conducted to evaluate neurofunctional changes before and after the optogenetic stimulation. Compared with the baseline, post-optogenetic stimulation PET imaging demonstrated that the glucose metabolism significantly increased (P < 0.001) in dPAG, the cuneiform nucleus, the cerebellar lobule, the cingulate cortex, the alveus of the hippocampus, the primary visual cortex, the septohypothalamic nucleus, and the retrosplenial granular cortex but significantly decreased (P < 0.001) in the basal ganglia, the frontal cortex, the forceps minor corpus callosum, the primary somatosensory cortex, the primary motor cortex, the secondary visual cortex, and the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus. Taken together, these data indicated that in vivo PET imaging can successfully detect downstream neurofunctional changes involved in the panic attacks after optogenetic stimulation to the dPAG.

Molecular and epigenetic markers as promising tools to quantify the effect of occupational exposures and the risk of developing non-communicable diseases

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic diseases that are by far the leading cause of death in the world. Many occupational hazards, together with social, economic and demographic factors, have been associated to NCDs development. Genetic susceptibility or environmental exposures alone are not usually sufficient to explain the pathogenesis of NCDs, but can be integrated in a more complex scenario that can result in pathological phenotypes. Epigenetics is a crucial component of this scenario, as its changes are related to specific exposures, therefore potentially able to display the effects of environment on the genome, filling the gap between genetic asset and environment in explaining disease development. To date, the most promising biomarkers have been assessed in occupational cohorts as well as in case/control studies and include DNA methylation, histone modifications, microRNA expression, extracellular vesicles, telomere length, and mitochondrial alterations.