SID-5 is an endosome-associated protein required for efficient systemic RNAi in C. elegans

The conserved SNARE SEC-22 localizes to late endosomes and negatively regulates RNA interference in Caenorhabditis elegans

Small RNA pathways, including RNA interference (RNAi), play crucial roles in regulation of gene expression. Initially considered to be cytoplasmic, these processes have later been demonstrated to associate with membranes. For example, maturation of late endosomes/multivesicular bodies (MVBs) is required for efficient RNAi, whereas fusion of MVBs to lysosomes appears to reduce silencing efficiency. SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) mediate membrane fusion and are thus at the core of membrane trafficking. In spite of this, no SNARE has previously been reported to affect RNAi. Here, we demonstrate that in Caenorhabditis elegans, loss of the conserved SNARE SEC-22 results in enhanced RNAi upon ingestion of double-stranded RNA. Furthermore, SEC-22 overexpression inhibits RNAi in wild-type animals. We find that overexpression of SEC-22 in the target tissue (body wall muscle) strongly suppresses the sec-22(-) enhanced RNAi phenotype, supporting a primary role for SEC-22 in import of RNAi silencing signals or cell autonomous RNAi. A functional mCherry::SEC-22 protein localizes primarily to late endosomes/MVBs and these compartments are enlarged in animals lacking sec-22 SEC-22 interacts with late endosome-associated RNA transport protein SID-5 in a yeast two-hybrid assay and functions in a sid-5-dependent manner. Taken together, our data indicate that SEC-22 reduces RNAi efficiency by affecting late endosome/MVB function, for example, by promoting fusion between late endosomes/MVBs and lysosomes. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a SNARE with a function in small RNA-mediated gene silencing.

Asian Citrus Psyllid RNAi Pathway - RNAi evidence

Diaphorina citri, known as the Asian citrus psyllid, is an important pest of citrus because it transmits a phloem-limited bacteria strongly implicated in huanglongbing (citrus greening disease). Emerging biotechnologies, such as RNA interference, could provide a new sustainable and environmentally friendly strategy for the management of this pest. In this study, genome and functional analysis were performed to verify whether the RNAi core genes are present in the Asian psyllid genome and if the RNAi machinery could be exploited to develop a management strategy for this pest. Analyses of RNAi-related genes in the Asian citrus psyllid genome showed an absence of sequences encoding R2D2, a dsRNA-binding protein that functions as a cofactor of Dicer-2 in Drosophila. Nevertheless, bioassays using an in Planta System showed that the Asian citrus psyllid was very sensitive to ingested dsRNA, demonstrating a strong RNAi response. A small dose of dsRNA administered through a citrus flush was enough to trigger the RNAi mechanism, causing significant suppression of the targeted transcript, and increased psyllid mortality. This study provides evidence of a functional RNAi machinery, which could be further exploited to develop RNAi based management strategies for the control of the Asian citrus psyllid.

Extracellular RNA is transported from one generation to the next in Caenorhabditis elegans

Experiences during the lifetime of an animal have been proposed to have consequences for subsequent generations. Although it is unclear how such intergenerational transfer of information occurs, RNAs found extracellularly in animals are candidate molecules that can transfer gene-specific regulatory information from one generation to the next because they can enter cells and regulate gene expression. In support of this idea, when double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is introduced into some animals, the dsRNA can silence genes of matching sequence and the silencing can persist in progeny. Such persistent gene silencing is thought to result from sequence-specific interaction of the RNA within parents to generate chromatin modifications, DNA methylation, and/or secondary RNAs, which are then inherited by progeny. Here, we show that dsRNA can be directly transferred between generations in the worm Caenorhabditis elegans Intergenerational transfer of dsRNA occurs even in animals that lack any DNA of matching sequence, and dsRNA that reaches progeny can spread between cells to cause gene silencing. Surprisingly, extracellular dsRNA can also reach progeny without entry into the cytosol, presumably within intracellular vesicles. Fluorescently labeled dsRNA is imported from extracellular space into oocytes along with yolk and accumulates in punctate structures within embryos. Subsequent entry into the cytosol of early embryos causes gene silencing in progeny. These results demonstrate the transport of extracellular RNA from one generation to the next to regulate gene expression in an animal and thus suggest a mechanism for the transmission of experience-dependent effects between generations.

Bidirectional cross-kingdom RNAi and fungal uptake of external RNAs confer plant protection

Aggressive fungal pathogens such as Botrytis and Verticillium spp. cause severe crop losses worldwide. We recently discovered that Botrytis cinerea delivers small RNAs (Bc-sRNAs) into plant cells to silence host immunity genes. Such sRNA effectors are mostly produced by Botrytis cinerea Dicer-like protein 1 (Bc-DCL1) and Bc-DCL2. Here we show that expressing sRNAs that target Bc-DCL1 and Bc-DCL2 in Arabidopsis and tomato silences Bc-DCL genes and attenuates fungal pathogenicity and growth, exemplifying bidirectional cross-kingdom RNAi and sRNA trafficking between plants and fungi. This strategy can be adapted to simultaneously control multiple fungal diseases. We also show that Botrytis can take up external sRNAs and double-stranded RNAs (dsRNAs). Applying sRNAs or dsRNAs that target Botrytis DCL1 and DCL2 genes on the surface of fruits, vegetables and flowers significantly inhibits grey mould disease. Such pathogen gene-targeting RNAs represent a new generation of environmentally friendly fungicides.

RNAi as a management tool for the western corn rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera

The western corn rootworm (WCR), Diabrotica virgifera virgifera, is the most important pest of corn in the US Corn Belt. Economic estimates indicate that costs of control and yield loss associated with WCR damage exceed $US 1 billion annually. Historically, corn rootworm management has been extremely difficult because of its ability to evolve resistance to both chemical insecticides and cultural control practices. Since 2003, the only novel commercialized developments in rootworm management have been transgenic plants expressing Bt insecticidal proteins. Four transgenic insecticidal proteins are currently registered for rootworm management, and field resistance to proteins from the Cry3 family highlights the importance of developing traits with new modes of action. One of the newest approaches for controlling rootworm pests involves RNA interference (RNAi). This review describes the current understanding of the RNAi mechanisms in WCR and the use of this technology for WCR management. Further, the review addresses ecological risk assessment of RNAi and insect resistance management of RNAi for corn rootworm. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Endomembrane-associated RSD-3 is important for RNAi induced by extracellular silencing RNA in both somatic and germ cells of Caenorhabditis elegans

RNA silencing signals in C. elegans spread among cells, leading to RNAi throughout the body. During systemic spread of RNAi, membrane trafficking is thought to play important roles. Here, we show that RNAi Spreading Defective-3 (rsd-3), which encodes a homolog of epsinR, a conserved ENTH (epsin N-terminal homology) domain protein, generally participates in cellular uptake of silencing RNA. RSD-3 is previously thought to be involved in systemic RNAi only in germ cells, but we isolated several deletion alleles of rsd-3, and found that these mutants are defective in the spread of silencing RNA not only into germ cells but also into somatic cells. RSD-3 is ubiquitously expressed, and intracellularly localized to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) and endosomes. Tissue-specific rescue experiments indicate that RSD-3 is required for importing silencing RNA into cells rather than exporting from cells. Structure/function analysis showed that the ENTH domain alone is sufficient, and membrane association of the ENTH domain is required, for RSD-3 function in systemic RNAi. Our results suggest that endomembrane trafficking through the TGN and endosomes generally plays an important role in cellular uptake of silencing RNA.

The involvement of clathrin-mediated endocytosis and two Sid-1-like transmembrane proteins in double-stranded RNA uptake in the Colorado potato beetle midgut

RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful tool in entomology and shows promise as a crop protection strategy, but variability in its efficiency across different insect species limits its applicability. For oral uptake of the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), the RNAi trigger, two different mechanisms are known: systemic RNA interference deficient-1 (Sid-1) transmembrane channel-mediated uptake and clathrin-mediated endocytosis. So far, a wide range of experiments has been conducted, confirming the involvement of one of the pathways in dsRNA uptake, but never both pathways in the same species. We investigated the role of both pathways in dsRNA uptake in the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, known to have an efficient RNAi response. Through RNAi-of-RNAi experiments, we demonstrated the contribution of two different sid-1-like (sil) genes, silA and silC, and clathrin heavy chain and the 16kDa subunit of the vacuolar H(+) ATPase (vha16), elements of the endocytic pathway, to the RNAi response. Furthermore, the sid-1-like genes were examined through phylogenetic and hydrophobicity analysis. This article reports for the first time on the involvement of two pathways in dsRNA uptake in an insect species and stresses the importance of evaluating both pathways through a well-devised reporter system in any future experiments on cellular dsRNA uptake.

RNA silencing movement in plants

Multicellular organisms, like higher plants, need to coordinate their growth and development and to cope with environmental cues. To achieve this, various signal molecules are transported between neighboring cells and distant organs to control the fate of the recipient cells and organs. RNA silencing produces cell non-autonomous signal molecules that can move over short or long distances leading to the sequence specific silencing of a target gene in a well defined area of cells or throughout the entire plant, respectively. The nature of these signal molecules, the route of silencing spread, and the genes involved in their production, movement and reception are discussed in this review. Additionally, a short section on features of silencing spread in animal models is presented at the end of this review.

Bacillus thuringiensis Crystal Protein Cry6Aa Triggers Caenorhabditis elegans Necrosis Pathway Mediated by Aspartic Protease (ASP-1)

Cell death plays an important role in host-pathogen interactions. Crystal proteins (toxins) are essential components of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) biological pesticides because of their specific toxicity against insects and nematodes. However, the mode of action by which crystal toxins to induce cell death is not completely understood. Here we show that crystal toxin triggers cell death by necrosis signaling pathway using crystal toxin Cry6Aa-Caenorhabditis elegans toxin-host interaction system, which involves an increase in concentrations of cytoplasmic calcium, lysosomal lyses, uptake of propidium iodide, and burst of death fluorescence. We find that a deficiency in the necrosis pathway confers tolerance to Cry6Aa toxin. Intriguingly, the necrosis pathway is specifically triggered by Cry6Aa, not by Cry5Ba, whose amino acid sequence is different from that of Cry6Aa. Furthermore, Cry6Aa-induced necrosis pathway requires aspartic protease (ASP-1). In addition, ASP-1 protects Cry6Aa from over-degradation in C. elegans. This is the first demonstration that deficiency in necrosis pathway confers tolerance to Bt crystal protein, and that Cry6A triggers necrosis represents a newly added necrosis paradigm in the C. elegans. Understanding this model could lead to new strategies for nematode control.

Necrosis contributes to many devastating pathological conditions, such as neurodegenerative diseases and microbial pathogenesis. Bacillus thuringiensis crystal proteins are effective biopesticides. Our study reveals that B. thuringiensis Cry6Aa protein triggers the necrosis pathway using Caenorhabditis elegans as a model. We show that aspartic protease ASP-1 is required for Cry6Aa protein-induced necrosis, whereas intrinsic insults induce necrosis mediated by ASP-3 and ASP-4. Our findings contribute to the understanding of the mechanism of Bt crystal protein action and host-pathogen interactions. Because necrosis mechanisms are conserved from nematodes to humans, the fact that necrosis can be induced by Cry6Aa provides a model system for studying necrosis mechanisms in human diseases.

RNAi and Antiviral Defense in the Honey Bee

Honey bees play an important agricultural and ecological role as pollinators of numerous agricultural crops and other plant species. Therefore, investigating the factors associated with high annual losses of honey bee colonies in the US is an important and active area of research. Pathogen incidence and abundance correlate with Colony Collapse Disorder- (CCD-) affected colonies in the US and colony losses in the US and in some European countries. Honey bees are readily infected by single-stranded positive sense RNA viruses. Largely dependent on the host immune response, virus infections can either remain asymptomatic or result in deformities, paralysis, or death of adults or larvae. RNA interference (RNAi) is an important antiviral defense mechanism in insects, including honey bees. Herein, we review the role of RNAi in honey bee antiviral defense and highlight some parallels between insect and mammalian immune systems. A more thorough understanding of the role of pathogens on honey bee health and the immune mechanisms bees utilize to combat infectious agents may lead to the development of strategies that enhance honey bee health and result in the discovery of additional mechanisms of immunity in metazoans.

Antiviral RNA Interference against Orsay Virus Is neither Systemic nor Transgenerational in Caenorhabditis elegans

Antiviral RNA-mediated silencing (RNA interference [RNAi]) acts as a powerful innate immunity defense in plants, invertebrates, and mammals. In Caenorhabditis elegans, RNAi is systemic; i.e., RNAi silencing signals can move between cells and tissues. Furthermore, RNAi effects can be inherited transgenerationally and may last for many generations. Neither the biological relevance of systemic RNAi nor transgenerational RNAi is currently understood. Here we examined the role of both pathways in the protection of C. elegans from viral infection. We studied the Orsay virus, a positive-strand RNA virus related to Nodaviridae and the first and only virus known to infect C. elegans. Immunity to Orsay virus infection requires the RNAi pathway. Surprisingly, we found that genes required for systemic or transgenerational RNAi did not have a role in antiviral defense. Furthermore, we found that Orsay virus infection did not elicit a systemic RNAi response even when a target for RNAi was provided by using transgenes. Finally, we show that viral siRNAs, the effectors of RNAi, are not inherited to a level that provides any significant resistance to viral infection in the next generation. We conclude that systemic or transgenerational RNAi does not play a role in the defense against natural Orsay virus infection. Furthermore, our data suggest that there is a qualitative difference between experimental RNAi and antiviral RNAi. Our data are consistent with a model of systemic and transgenerational RNAi that requires a nuclear or germ line component that is lacking in almost all RNA virus infections.

IMPORTANCE Since its discovery in Caenorhabditis elegans, RNAi has proven a valuable scientific tool in many organisms. In C. elegans, exogenous RNAi spreads throughout the organism and can be passed between generations; however, there has been controversy as to the endogenous role(s) that the RNAi pathway plays. One endogenous role for which spreading both within the infected organism and between generations would be advantageous is a role in viral defense. In plants, antiviral RNAi is systemic and the spread of RNAi between cells provides protection against subsequent viral infection. Here we investigated this by using the only naturally occurring virus known to infect C. elegans, Orsay virus, and surprisingly found that, in contrast to the exogenous RNAi pathway, the antiviral RNAi response targeted against this virus does not spread systemically throughout the organism and cannot be passed between generations. These results suggest that there are differences between the two pathways that remain to be discovered.

Movement of regulatory RNA between animal cells

Recent studies suggest that RNA can move from one cell to another and regulate genes through specific base-pairing. Mechanisms that modify or select RNA for secretion from a cell are unclear. Secreted RNA can be stable enough to be detected in the extracellular environment and can enter the cytosol of distant cells to regulate genes. Mechanisms that import RNA into the cytosol of an animal cell can enable uptake of RNA from many sources including other organisms. This role of RNA is akin to that of steroid hormones, which cross cell membranes to regulate genes. The potential diagnostic use of RNA in human extracellular fluids has ignited interest in understanding mechanisms that enable the movement of RNA between animal cells. Genetic model systems will be essential to gain more confidence in proposed mechanisms of RNA transport and to connect an extracellular RNA with a specific biological function. Studies in the worm C. elegans and in other animals have begun to reveal parts of this novel mechanism of cell-to-cell communication. Here, I summarize the current state of this nascent field, highlight the many unknowns, and suggest future directions.

E. coli OxyS non-coding RNA does not trigger RNAi in C. elegans

The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) in C. elegans has had a major impact on scientific research, led to the rapid development of RNAi tools and has inspired RNA-based therapeutics. Astonishingly, nematodes, planaria and many insects take up double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) from their environment to elicit RNAi; the biological function of this mechanism is unclear. Recently, the E. coli OxyS non-coding RNA was shown to regulate gene expression in C. elegans when E. coli is offered as food. This was surprising given that C. elegans is unlikely to encounter E. coli in nature. To directly test the hypothesis that the E. coli OxyS non-coding RNA triggers the C. elegans RNAi pathway, we sequenced small RNAs from C. elegans after feeding with bacteria. We clearly demonstrate that the OxyS non-coding RNA does not trigger an RNAi response in C. elegans. We conclude that the biology of environmental RNAi remains to be discovered.

Establishing an in vivo assay system to identify components involved in environmental RNA interference in the western corn rootworm

The discovery of environmental RNA interference (RNAi), in which gene expression is suppressed via feeding with double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules, opened the door to the practical application of RNAi-based techniques in crop pest management. The western corn rootworm (WCR, Diabrotica virgifera virgifera) is one of the most devastating corn pests in North America. Interestingly, WCR displays a robust environmental RNAi response, raising the possibility of applying an RNAi-based pest management strategy to this pest. Understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in the WCR environmental RNAi process will allow for determining the rate limiting steps involved with dsRNA toxicity and potential dsRNA resistance mechanisms in WCR. In this study, we have established a two-step in vivo assay system, which allows us to evaluate the involvement of genes in environmental RNAi in WCR. We show that laccase 2 and ebony, critical cuticle pigmentation/tanning genes, can be used as marker genes in our assay system, with ebony being a more stable marker to monitor RNAi activity. In addition, we optimized the dsRNA dose and length for the assay, and confirmed that this assay system is sensitive to detect well-known RNAi components such as Dicer-2 and Argonaute-2. We also evaluated two WCR sid1- like (sil) genes with this assay system. This system will be useful to quickly survey candidate systemic RNAi genes in WCR, and also will be adaptable for a genome-wide RNAi screening to give us an unbiased view of the environmental/systemic RNAi pathway in WCR.

Molecular biology approaches in bioadhesion research

The use of molecular biology tools in the field of bioadhesion is still in its infancy. For new research groups who are considering taking a molecular approach, the techniques presented here are essential to unravelling the sequence of a gene, its expression and its biological function. Here we provide an outline for addressing adhesion-related genes in diverse organisms. We show how to gradually narrow down the number of candidate transcripts that are involved in adhesion by (1) generating a transcriptome and a differentially expressed cDNA list enriched for adhesion-related transcripts, (2) setting up a BLAST search facility, (3) perform an in situ hybridization screen, and (4) functional analyses of selected genes by using RNA interference knock-down. Furthermore, latest developments in genome-editing are presented as new tools to study gene function. By using this iterative multi-technologies approach, the identification, isolation, expression and function of adhesion-related genes can be studied in most organisms. These tools will improve our understanding of the diversity of molecules used for adhesion in different organisms and these findings will help to develop innovative bio-inspired adhesives.

Scavenger receptor-mediated endocytosis facilitates RNA interference in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria

RNA interference (RNAi) has become a widely used loss-of-function tool in eukaryotes; however, the delivery of double-stranded (ds)RNA) to the target cells remains a major challenge when exploiting the RNAi-technology. In insects, the efficiency of RNAi is highly species-dependent. Yet, the mechanism of cell entry in insects has only been characterized in a cell line of the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, a species that is well known to be poorly amenable to environmental RNAi. In the present paper, we demonstrate that silencing vacuolar H-ATPase 16 (vha16) and clathrin heavy chain (clath), two components of the Clathrin-dependent endocytosis pathway, together with pharmacological inhibition of scavenger receptors with polyinosine and dextran sulphate, can significantly attenuate the highly robust RNAi response in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria.

Traffic into silence: endomembranes and post-transcriptional RNA silencing

microRNAs (miRNAs) and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are small RNAs that repress gene expression at the post-transcriptional level in plants and animals. Small RNAs guide Argonaute-containing RNA-induced silencing complexes to target RNAs in a sequence-specific manner, resulting in mRNA deadenylation followed by exonucleolytic decay, mRNA endonucleolytic cleavage, or translational inhibition. Although our knowledge of small RNA biogenesis, turnover, and mechanisms of action has dramatically expanded in the past decade, the subcellular location of small RNA-mediated RNA silencing still needs to be defined. In contrast to the prevalent presumption that RNA silencing occurs in the cytosol, emerging evidence reveals connections between the endomembrane system and small RNA activities in plants and animals. Here, we summarize the work that uncovered this link between small RNAs and endomembrane compartments and present an overview of the involvement of the endomembrane system in various aspects of RNA silencing. We propose that the endomembrane system is an integral component of RNA silencing that has been long overlooked and predict that a marriage between cell biology and RNA biology holds the key to a full understanding of post-transcriptional gene regulation by small RNAs.

Small RNAs: a new paradigm in plant-microbe interactions

A never-ending arms race drives coevolution between pathogens and hosts. In plants, pathogen attacks invoke multiple layers of host immune responses. Many pathogens deliver effector proteins into host cells to suppress host immunity, and many plants have evolved resistance proteins to recognize effectors and trigger robust resistance. Here, we discuss findings on noncoding small RNAs (sRNAs) from plants and pathogens, which regulate host immunity and pathogen virulence. Recent discoveries have unveiled the role of noncoding sRNAs from eukaryotic pathogens and bacteria in pathogenicity in both plant and animal hosts. The discovery of fungal sRNAs that are delivered into host cells to suppress plant immunity added sRNAs to the list of pathogen effectors. Similar to protein effector genes, many of these sRNAs are generated from transposable element (TE) regions, which are likely to contribute to rapidly evolving virulence and host adaptation. We also discuss RNA silencing that occurs between organisms.

RNAi and antiviral defense in Drosophila: setting up a systemic immune response

RNA interference (RNAi) controls gene expression in eukaryotic cells and thus, cellular homeostasis. In addition, in plants, nematodes and arthropods it is a central antiviral effector mechanism. Antiviral RNAi has been well described as a cell autonomous response, which is triggered by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecules. This dsRNA is the precursor for the silencing of viral RNA in a sequence-specific manner. In plants, systemic antiviral immunity has been demonstrated, however much less is known in animals. Recently, some evidence for a systemic antiviral response in arthropods has come to light. Cell autonomous RNAi may not be sufficient to reach an efficient antiviral response, and the organism might rely on the spread and uptake of an RNAi signal of unknown origin. In this review, we offer a perspective on how RNAi-mediated antiviral immunity could confer systemic protection in insects and we propose directions for future research to understand the mechanism of RNAi-immune signal sorting, spreading and amplification.

Biological mechanisms determining the success of RNA interference in insects

Insects constitute the largest group of animals on this planet, having a huge impact on our environment, as well as on our quality of life. RNA interference (RNAi) is a posttranscriptional gene silencing mechanism triggered by double-stranded (ds)RNA fragments. This process not only forms the basis of a widely used reverse genetics research method in many different eukaryotes but also holds great promise to contribute to the species-specific control of agricultural pests and to combat viral infections in beneficial and disease vectoring insects. However, in many economically important insect species, such as flies, mosquitoes, and caterpillars, systemic delivery of naked dsRNA does not trigger effective gene silencing. Although many components of the RNAi pathway have initially been deciphered in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, it will be of major importance to investigate this process in a wider variety of species, including dsRNA-sensitive insects such as locusts and beetles, to elucidate the factors responsible for the remarkable variability in RNAi efficiency, as observed in different insects. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge on the RNAi pathway, as well as the most recent insights into the mechanisms that might determine successful RNAi in insects.

Towards the elements of successful insect RNAi

RNA interference (RNAi), the sequence-specific suppression of gene expression, offers great opportunities for insect science, especially to analyze gene function, manage pest populations, and reduce disease pathogens. The accumulating body of literature on insect RNAi has revealed that the efficiency of RNAi varies between different species, the mode of RNAi delivery, and the genes being targeted. There is also variation in the duration of transcript suppression. At present, we have a limited capacity to predict the ideal experimental strategy for RNAi of a particular gene/insect because of our incomplete understanding of whether and how the RNAi signal is amplified and spread among insect cells. Consequently, development of the optimal RNAi protocols is a highly empirical process. This limitation can be relieved by systematic analysis of the molecular physiological basis of RNAi mechanisms in insects. An enhanced conceptual understanding of RNAi function in insects will facilitate the application of RNAi for dissection of gene function, and to fast-track the application of RNAi to both control pests and develop effective methods to protect beneficial insects and non-insect arthropods, particularly the honey bee (Apis mellifera) and cultured Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) from viral and parasitic diseases.

RNA interference: Systemic RNAi SIDes with endosomes

Systemic RNAi, the intercellular spreading of RNAi silencing, requires SID-1 and SID-3 to import silencing signals in Caenorhabditis elegans. How are these signals exported? SID-5, an endosome-associated protein, is a candidate for the job.

Biology and Mechanisms of Short RNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans

The significance of noncoding RNAs in animal biology is being increasingly recognized. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has an extensive system of short RNAs that includes microRNAs, piRNAs, and endogenous siRNAs, which regulate development, control life span, provide resistance to viruses and transposons, and monitor gene duplications. Progress in our understanding of short RNAs was stimulated by the discovery of RNA interference, a phenomenon of sequence-specific gene silencing induced by exogenous double-stranded RNA, at the turn of the twenty-first century. This chapter provides a broad overview of the exogenous and endogenous RNAi processes in C. elegans and describes recent advances in genetic, genomic, and molecular analyses of nematode's short RNAs and proteins involved in the RNAi-related pathways.