Fracture nonunion in long bones: A literature review of risk factors and surgical management

Extracellular Matrix-Surrogate Advanced Functional Composite Biomaterials for Tissue Repair and Regeneration

Native tissues, comprising multiple cell types and extracellular matrix components, are inherently composites. Mimicking the intricate structure, functionality, and dynamic properties of native composite tissues represents a significant frontier in biomaterials science and tissue engineering research. Biomimetic composite biomaterials combine the benefits of different components, such as polymers, ceramics, metals, and biomolecules, to create tissue-template materials that closely simulate the structure and functionality of native tissues. While the design of composite biomaterials and their in vitro testing are frequently reviewed, there is a considerable gap in whole animal studies that provides insight into the progress toward clinical translation. Herein, we provide an insightful critical review of advanced composite biomaterials applicable in several tissues. The incorporation of bioactive cues and signaling molecules into composite biomaterials to mimic the native microenvironment is discussed. Strategies for the spatiotemporal release of growth factors, cytokines, and extracellular matrix proteins are elucidated, highlighting their role in guiding cellular behavior, promoting tissue regeneration, and modulating immune responses. Advanced composite biomaterials design challenges, such as achieving optimal mechanical properties, improving long-term stability, and integrating multifunctionality into composite biomaterials and future directions, are discussed. We believe that this manuscript provides the reader with a timely perspective on composite biomaterials.

Enoxaparin and Early Postoperative Tibial Nailing: Increased Nonunion Revision Rates

OBJECTIVES

To determine the association between postoperative enoxaparin use and the risk of requiring surgery for nonunion in patients treated with intramedullary nailing for midshaft fractures of the tibia.

METHODS

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort analysis.

SETTING

Data were sourced from the PearlDiver national database.

PATIENT SELECTION CRITERIA

Patients were identified through the PearlDiver database by using Current Procedural Terminology and International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) codes. Included patients had undergone intramedullary nailing for midshaft fractures of the tibia between 2015 and 2020 and subsequently underwent revision surgery due to nonunion.

OUTCOME MEASURES AND COMPARISONS

The primary outcome measured in this study was the rate of nonunion following intramedullary nailing for the different types of tibial shaft fractures (closed, Type I/II open, Type III open). For each fracture subtype, the study compared nonunion rates between those who received enoxaparin in the postoperative period and those who did not receive enoxaparin at any time during the first 6 weeks postoperatively. Factors such as the timing and duration of enoxaparin therapy and demographic variables were also considered.

RESULTS

The study included 16,986 patients, average age was 49.2 years (SD 17.3); 43.1% were female. Five hundred four patients required revision surgery for nonunion (3.4%). Among patients who did not receive enoxaparin, the nonunion rates were 1.6%, 3.9%, and 6.9% for closed, Type I/II open, and Type III open fractures, respectively. For patients who received enoxaparin within the first 2 weeks, the nonunion rates were 2.6%, 4.7%, and 7.9% for closed (RR = 1.67, P < 0.0001), Type I/II open (RR = 1.21, P < 0.0001), and Type III open (RR = 1.17, P = 0.355) fractures, respectively. Logistic regression confirmed enoxaparin was independently associated with nonunion (odds ratios [OR] = 1.75, P = 0.0013 for closed fractures; OR = 1.51, P = 0.034 for Type I/II open fractures). Tobacco use was also a contributing factor (OR = 2.43, P < 0.0001 for closed fractures; OR = 2.00, P < 0.0001 for Type I/II open fractures; OR = 2.04, P = 0.0008 for Type III open fractures).

CONCLUSIONS

The postoperative use of enoxaparin was associated with an elevated risk of nonunion in patients treated with intramedullary nailing for fractures of the tibial shaft.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Nonunion Fractures: Trends in Epidemiology and Treatment of Femur Fractures, 2017-2022

BACKGROUND

The incidence of femur fractures has increased in recent years, along with the rate of surgery and subsequent nonunion following these fractures. Nonunion is a significant concern due to the burden it places on both patients and the healthcare system. This study aims to investigate the demographic factors associated with femoral shaft fracture nonunion by comparing two surgical management approaches: open reduction internal fixation (ORIF) with plating versus closed reduction and fixation using intramedullary nailing (IMN).

METHODS

The TriNetX database was queried using current procedural terminology (CPT) codes for surgical repair of femoral shaft fractures (FSFs), including IMN surgery (CPT: 27506) and femur ORIF (CPT: 27507). The subsequent chronological nonunion cases were identified using the 10th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10) codes for femoral nonunion (S72.301K, S72.302K). Results were analyzed both descriptively and comparatively to assess differences among patients. Factors considered included age, sex, ethnicity, race, smoking status, and the type of surgical management (ORIF versus nailing) across the six-year study period.

RESULTS

From 2017 to 2022, the prevalence of femoral shaft fracture surgeries increased for both IMN and ORIF. The rate of nonunion was 2.1% following IMN and 1.7% following ORIF. The mean age for nonunion was 54 years (SD: 20) following IMN and 63 years (SD: 18) following ORIF. Patients with a positive smoking history had higher rates of nonunion compared to those without.

CONCLUSION

Our study revealed a relatively consistent rate of FSFs and nonunion over the six-year period. However, with a growing population, the absolute number of cases is steadily increasing, underscoring the burden on the healthcare system. This study contributes to the growing body of literature focused on improving patient outcomes and promoting health equity in fracture management practices.

Characterization of patient population receiving bioactive glass bone graft substitute as intraoperative treatment for orthopaedic trauma fractures

Background

Bioactive glass synthetic bone grafts are used to treat osseous defects in orthopaedic surgery. Characterization of the clinical scenarios associated with bioactive glass use in the context of orthopaedic trauma, are not well established. This study aims to characterize population demographics, operative variables, as well as postoperative variables, for patients who required bone grafting for treatment of traumatic orthopaedic injuries and received a bioactive glass bone substitute intraoperatively.

Methods

The electronic medical record at a large Level I trauma center was queried for fracture patients between January 1st, 2019, and April 30th, 2022. Our retrospective cohort included fracture patients who received Fibergraft Matrix or Fibergraft Putty intraoperatively, and their respective control groups. This study ascertained patient demographic variables, operative variables, and postoperative variables. Differences in categorical variables were tested with Fischer's Exact Tests, while differences in continuous variables were tested with ANOVA. Statistical significance was determined as P < 0.05. If the overall Group model was significant for a given variable, post-hoc Fischer's Exact or Tukey HSD tests were used to assess pairwise significance between individual Group pairs.

Results

A total of four categories across our analysis of demographic, operative, and postoperative variables displayed significant differences amongst subject Groups (P ≤ 0.03). Individual groups were compared such that significant differences between subject groups could be appreciated for a specific variable. FM subjects had greater length of surgery, billable costs, and vitamin D supplementation at the time of surgery compared to FM controls. Similarly, FP subjects had greater length of surgery, billable cost, and implants used intraoperatively compared to FP controls.

Conclusion

This analysis revealed Fibergraft patients to have greater length of surgery and billable cost, with respect to their matched controls. These data suggest that Fibergraft patients had more severe orthopaedic fractures compared to matched controls.

Effect of Prior Cheilectomy on Outcomes of First Metatarsophalangeal Joint Fusion

Cheilectomy, a joint-conserving procedure, is often a first-line choice for treating early stages of hallux rigidus. Recent evidence has revealed its efficacy in treating more advanced stages. However, when degeneration is profound, first metatarsophalangeal (MTP) fusion remains the most appropriate strategy. Nevertheless, it is common for surgeons to proceed initially with cheilectomy, reserving joint fusion for subsequent considerations if cheilectomy fails. This article will explore the relationship between the 2 procedures and evaluate the research surrounding the effect of prior cheilectomy on first MTP joint arthrodesis.

[Non-unions of the upper extremities]

The diagnosis and treatment of non-unions still represents an interdisciplinary challenge. Therefore, prevention, early detection and specific treatment are of great importance. Non-unions of the upper extremities, although less common than that of the lower extremities, requires special attention for successful treatment due to the central role of the shoulder girdle and arm in day to day activities. Successful treatment of non-unions requires a comprehensive evaluation of the patient's medical history, a thorough clinical examination and in particular radiological imaging. In order to effectively treat the pseudarthrosis it is crucial to distinguish between pseudarthroses that are suspected to be due to infections and those that are not. This article presents a treatment algorithm for managing both pseudarthrosis due to infection and pseudarthrosis without infection in the upper extremities.

Polyene phosphatidylcholine promotes tibial fracture healing in rats by stimulating angiogenesis dominated by the VEGFA/VEGFR2 signaling pathway

One of the factors that predispose to fractures is liver damage. Interestingly, fractures are sometimes accompanied by abnormal liver function. Polyene phosphatidylcholine (PPC) is an important liver repair drug. We wondered if PPC had a role in promoting fracture healing. A rat model of tibial fracture was developed using the modified Einhorn model method. X-rays were used to detect the progression of fracture healing. Progress of ossification and angiogenesis at the fracture site were analyzed by Safranin O/fast green staining and CD31 immunohistochemistry. To investigate whether PPC has a direct angiogenesis effect, HUVECs were used. We performed MTT, wound healing, Transwell migration, and tube formation assays. Finally, RT-qPCR and Western blot analysis were used to study the underlying mechanism. The results showed that PPC significantly shortened the apparent recovery time of mobility in rats. PPC treatment significantly promoted the formation of cartilage callus, endochondral ossification, and angiogenesis at the fracture site. In vitro, PPC promoted the proliferative viability of HUVECs, their ability to heal wounds, and their ability to penetrate membranes in the Transwell apparatus and increased the tube formation of cells. The transcription of VEGFA, VEGFR2, PLCγ, RAS, ERK1/2 and MEK1/2 was significantly up regulated by PPC. Further, the protein level results demonstrated a significant increase in the expression of VEGFA, VEGFR2, MEK1/2, and ERK1/2 proteins. In conclusion, our findings suggest that PPC promotes angiogenesis by activating the VEGFA/VEGFR2 and downstream signaling pathway, thereby accelerating fracture healing.

Fabricating vascularized, anatomically accurate bone grafts using 3D bioprinted sectional bone modules, in-situ angiogenesis, BMP-2 controlled release, and bioassembly

Bone grafting is the most common treatment for repairing bone defects. However, current bone grafting methods have several drawbacks. Bone tissue engineering emerges as a promising solution to these problems. An ideal engineered bone graft should exhibit high mechanical strength, osteogenic properties, and pre-vascularization. Both top-down (using bulk scaffold) and bottom-up (using granular modules) approaches face challenges in fulfilling these requirements. In this paper, we propose a novel sectional modular bone approach to construct osteogenic, pre-vascularized bone grafts in anatomical shapes. We 3D-printed a series of rigid, thin, sectional, porous scaffolds from a biodegradable polymer, tailored to the dimensions of a femur bone shaft. These thin sectional modules promote efficient nutrition and waste removal due to a shorter diffusion distance. The modules were pre-vascularized viain-situangiogenesis, achieved through endothelial cell sprouting from the scaffold struts. Angiogenesis was further enhanced through co-culture with bioprinted fibroblast microtissues, which secreted pre-angiogenic growth factors. Sectional modules were assembled around a porous rod incorporated with Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2 (BMP-2), which released over 3 weeks, demonstrating sustained osteogenic activity. The assembled scaffold, in the anatomical shape of a human femur shaft, was pre-vascularized, osteogenic, and possessed high mechanical strength, supporting 12 times the average body weight. The feasibility of implanting the assembled bone graft was demonstrated using a 3D-printed femur bone defect model. Our method provides a novel modular engineering approach for regenerating tissues that require high mechanical strength and vascularization.

Case Studies of a Simulation Workflow to Improve Bone Healing Assessment in Impending Non-Unions

Background: The healing potential of a fracture is determined by mechanical and biological factors. Simulation-based workflows can help assess these factors to assist in predicting non-unions. The aim of this study was the introduction of two use cases for a novel patient-specific simulation workflow based on clinically available information. Methods: The used software is an extension of the "Ulm Bone Healing model" and was applied in two cases with non-union development after fracture fixation to show its principal feasibility. The clinical and radiographic information, starting from initial treatment, were used to feed the simulation process. Results: The simulation predicted non-union development and axial deviation in a mechanically driven non-union. In the case of a biological non-union, a slow, incomplete healing course was correctly identified. However, the time offset in callus bridging was discordant between the simulation and the distinctly slower healing response in the clinical case. Conclusions: The simulation workflow presented in the two clinical use cases allowed for the identification of fractures at risk for impending non-union immediately after the initial fixation based on available clinical and radiographic information. Further validation in a large non-union cohort is needed to increase the model's precision, especially in biologically challenging cases, and show its validity as a screening instrument.

An Outline on the Advancements in Surgical Management of Osteoporosis-Associated Fractures

Osteoporosis significantly impairs bone density and increases fracture risk, representing a substantial global health challenge. The effectiveness of traditional treatments such as calcium supplementation and exercise in completely preventing fractures is limited. This review explores recent advancements in surgical techniques and treatment modalities to manage osteoporotic fractures better and improve patient outcomes. Osteoporotic fractures demand specialized surgical techniques due to compromised bone quality. Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are minimally invasive procedures that provide rapid pain relief and structural support using bone cement. While vertebroplasty is effective, it carries risks of cement leakage and new fractures. Kyphoplasty, with added balloon inflation, reduces leakage risk and improves vertebral height restoration but is costlier. Cement-augmented screws enhance fixation but can increase adjacent fracture risk and pose long-term complications. Surgical advancements encompass robotic-assisted surgery, offering precision and accelerated recovery, alongside biologic agents like bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), which enhance bone healing while reducing secondary interventions and eliminating donor site morbidity. Bone graft substitutes such as calcium phosphate cements enhance biomechanical compatibility, decrease morbidity, and reduce fracture loss and pain. Balloon kyphoplasty aids in height restoration and pain relief and diminishes the risk of subsequent vertebral fractures. Bioglass scaffolds promote bone regeneration by improving bone mineral density and lowering the incidence of new fractures. Optimal perioperative care, including patient selection, nutritional management, and early mobilization strategies, is crucial for mitigating risks in vulnerable populations. While current surgical interventions provide significant pain relief and functional benefits, ongoing research and multidisciplinary collaboration are crucial to prospectively refine these techniques and reduce the burden of osteoporosis. New technologies, such as tissue engineering and gene editing, hold potential for future treatment paradigms.

Can locking plate fixation and free Vascularised fibular transfer with skin island achieve good functional outcome in the treatment of large bone defects of Tibia ? A study of 26 cases

BACKGROUND

Despite the availability of multiple treatment options, management of tibial bone loss continues to be a challenge. Free vascularized fibula graft (FVFG) with a skin paddle offers better advantages over the other methods. We aimed to study the functional outcomes and QALY of patients with large tibial bone defects following FVFG with a locking plate.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed 26 consecutive patients with large tibial bone defects treated by free vascularized fibular graft (FVFG) and stabilization using a long locking plate between 2009 and 2018. All were followed up for a mean period of 42 months (24 to 120 months). Bony union, graft hypertrophy, and complications such as stress fracture and infections were assessed. Multivariate regression analysis was performed to identify any association between demographic factors, injury characteristics, treatment-related factors, and fibular hypertrophy. Additionally, The EQ-5D quality-of-life (QOL) indices were obtained using the SF-12 score to evaluate the patients' overall quality of life.

RESULTS

The mean age of the patients at the time of presentation was 36.26 yrs (range, 18-60 years). The cause of bone loss was open injury in 16 patients and infected nonunion in 10 patients. Complete union was achieved in 25 patients (96 %) without any requirement of additional surgical procedures. The mean union time of the graft was 4.04 months (range, 3-6 months). The mean fibular hypertrophy calculated by De Boer index was 0.61 %, 11 %, 28.24 % and 52.52 % at 3,6 months and 1 and 2 years respectively. Patients with metaphyseal bone loss have significant fibular hypertrophy. Participants in our study experienced a quality of life equivalent to 0.88 (range 0.79-0.99) of perfect health.

CONCLUSIONS

FVFG with skin paddle and LCP fixation for massive tibial bone loss achieved satisfactory outcome and QALY even in the challenging healthcare environment of South India, a developing country.It maintains alignment, promotes graft hypertrophy, and prevents stress fractures.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level 4 LEVEL OF CLINICAL CARE: Level I Tertiary trauma centre.

High Rate of Undetected Infections in Failed Osteosynthesis of Pertrochanteric Fractures

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to assess the incidence of infection in patients with cutout after proximal femur fracture (PFF) osteosynthesis.

METHODS

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

Third-level trauma center.

PATIENT SELECTION CRITERIA

Patients presenting with a cutout following PFF (OTA/AO 31A) osteosynthesis, between January 2007 and December 2020.

OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND COMPARISONS

The primary outcome was infection according to the European Bone and Joint Infection Society criteria.

RESULTS

Sixty-seven patients presenting with a cutout were included, with mean age of 83.3 years (range 63-96), and 51 (76.1%) were women. Of all cases, 16 (24.7%) presented a concomitant infection. The presence of concomitant infection was suspected preoperatively in only 3 of the cases. A subgroup analysis was performed between the cases with infection and those without infection, the groups being comparable in terms of demographic data and postoperative radiological criteria. Patients with underlying infection had a higher rate of surgical wound complication (56.3% vs. 22%, P = 0.014) and higher rates of leukocytosis (11.560 vs. 7.890, P = 0.023).

CONCLUSION

Faced with a cutout after osteosynthesis of a PFF, underlying infection should be considered as a possible etiological factor.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level IV. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The bone nonunion microenvironment: A place where osteogenesis struggles with osteoclastic capacity

Bone nonunion is a common and serious orthopedic disorder, the occurrence of which is associated with a disruption of the dynamic balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts during bone repair. However, the critical molecular mechanisms affecting this homeostasis are not well understood, and it is essential to investigate the specific components of this mechanism and to restore the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts to promote bone repair. First, we defined this complex local environmental factor as the "bone nonunion microenvironment" and identified the importance of the "struggle" between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which is the most essential element in determining the process of repair. On this basis, we also explored the cellular factors that influence osteogenesis and the molecular signals that influence the balance between osteoclast and osteoblasts, which are important for restoring homeostasis. Further, we explored other factors involved in osteogenesis, such as the biomechanical environment, the nutritional environment, the acid-base environment, and the temperature environment, which are important players in osteogenesis. In conclusion, we found that the balance between osteoblasts and osteoclasts is the essence of bone healing, which is based on the "bone nonunion microenvironment". Therefore, investigating the role of the bone nonunion microenvironment in the system of osteoblast-osteoclast "struggle" provides an important basis for further understanding of the mechanism of nonunion and the development of new therapeutic approaches.

Efficacy and safety of autologous or allogeneic mesenchymal stromal cells from adult adipose tissue expanded and combined with tricalcium phosphate biomaterial for the surgical treatment of atrophic nonunion of long bones: a phase II clinical trial

BACKGROUND

Autologous bone grafting is the standard treatment for the surgical management of atrophic nonunion of long bones. Other solutions, such as bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSC) combined with phospho-calcium material, have also been used. Here we evaluate the safety and early efficacy of a novel procedure using autologous or allogenic adipose tissue mesenchymal stromal cells (AT-MSC) seeded in a patented tricalcium phosphate-based biomaterial for the treatment of bone regeneration in cases of atrophic nonunion.

METHODS

This was a prospective, multicentric, open-label, phase 2 clinical trial of patients with atrophic nonunion of long bones. Biografts of autologous or allogenic AT-MSC combined with a phosphate substrate were manufactured prior to the surgical procedures. The primary efficacy was measured 6 months after surgery, but patients were followed for 12 months after surgery and a further year out of the scope of the study. All adverse events were recorded. This cohort was compared with a historical cohort of 14 cases treated by the same research team with autologous BM-MSC.

RESULTS

A total of 12 patients with atrophic nonunion of long bones were included. The mean (SD) age was 41.2 (12.1) years and 66.7% were men. Bone healing was achieved in 10 of the 12 cases (83%) treated with the AT-MSC biografts, a percentage of healing similar (11 of the 14 cases, 79%) to that achieved in patients treated with autologous BM-MSC. Overall, two adverse events, in the same patient, were considered related to the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that AT-MSC biografts are safe for the treatment of bone regeneration in cases of atrophic nonunion and reach high healing rates.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Study registered with EUDRA-CT (2013-000930-37) and ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02483364).

A case series utilizing bone marrow aspirate concentrate, cancellous bone autograft, platelet-rich plasma and autologous fibrin for the treatment of femur nonunions

Aim: To assess the efficacy of a bioregenerative scaffold derived from bone marrow aspirate, cancellous bone autograft, platelet-rich plasma and autologous fibrin in treating supracondylar femur nonunions. Methods & materials: Three patients with nonunions following multiple surgical failures underwent bone stabilization and the application of a novel bioregenerative scaffold. x-rays and subjective scales were collected before surgery and at 6, 12 and 24 months post-surgery. Results: All nonunions exhibited healing with sufficient callus formation, as confirmed radiologically. After 6 months, all patients resumed full weight-bearing walking without pain. Statistical analysis showed improvements in all scales compared with pre-surgical values. Conclusion: This method presents itself as an option for treating supracondylar femur nonunions following multiple surgical failures.

Fracture haematoma proteomics

Aims

The aim of this study was to determine the fracture haematoma (fxH) proteome after multiple trauma using label-free proteomics, comparing two different fracture treatment strategies.

Methods

A porcine multiple trauma model was used in which two fracture treatment strategies were compared: early total care (ETC) and damage control orthopaedics (DCO). fxH was harvested and analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Per group, discriminating proteins were identified and protein interaction analyses were performed to further elucidate key biomolecular pathways in the early fracture healing phase.

Results

The early fxH proteome was characterized by immunomodulatory and osteogenic proteins, and proteins involved in the coagulation cascade. Treatment-specific proteome alterations were observed. The fxH proteome of the ETC group showed increased expression of pro-inflammatory proteins related to, among others, activation of the complement system, neutrophil functioning, and macrophage activation, while showing decreased expression of proteins related to osteogenesis and tissue remodelling. Conversely, the fxH proteome of the DCO group contained various upregulated or exclusively detected proteins related to tissue regeneration and remodelling, and proteins related to anti-inflammatory and osteogenic processes.

Conclusion

The early fxH proteome of the ETC group was characterized by the expression of immunomodulatory, mainly pro-inflammatory, proteins, whereas the early fxH proteome of the DCO group was more regenerative and osteogenic in nature. These findings match clinical observations, in which enhanced surgical trauma after multiple trauma causes dysbalanced inflammation, potentially leading to reduced tissue regeneration, and gained insights into regulatory mechanisms of fracture healing after severe trauma.

Forearm Fracture Fixation with Locking Plates: Does Size Matter?

Purpose

Forearm shaft fractures of the radius and/or ulna are typically repaired with plates and screws, with 3.5 mm nonlocking screws being generally recommended. However, smaller plates and screws, either nonlocking or locking, can also be applied. The purpose of this study was to retrospectively review whether fracture healing rates and related complications are affected by plate size and type.

Methods

Patient demographic and descriptive data were retrospectively collected for all patients with a forearm shaft fracture treated with repair of the radial shaft and/or ulna shaft between 2017 and 2021 at a multiprovider and multilocation single institution. Inclusion criteria involved use of a locking plate with a minimum radiographic follow-up of 60 days and/or until fracture union was confirmed.

Results

A total of 110 patients met inclusion criteria. There were 45 (40.9%) females and 65 (59.1%) males included with the mean age at time of injury being 47 years (± 22). There were 34 (30.1%) isolated radius fractures, 50 (45.5%) isolated ulna fractures, and 26 (23.6%) both bone forearm fractures. Screw sizes consisted of 3.5 mm (small fragment) screws in 57 (52%) cases, whereas 2.7 mm/2.5 mm/2.4 mm (mini fragment) screws were used in 53 (48%) cases. Fracture union was confirmed in 108 (98%) cases. Among the two nonunion cases, one case (50%) involved a small fragment, and one case (50%) involved a mini fragment plate.

Conclusions

This study confirms that fracture union is high following any size plate fixation of radius and/or ulna fractures. Moreover, smaller screw sizes did not affect fracture union rates. Choice of plate type and screw diameter should be based on patient characteristics and surgeon preference and need not be limited to only 3.5 mm plate and screws.

Type of Study/Level of Evidence

Prognosis IIb.

Polytherapy versus monotherapy in the treatment of tibial non-unions: a retrospective study

BACKGROUND

Treating tibial non-unions efficiently presents a challenge for orthopaedic trauma surgeons. The established gold standard involves implanting autologous bone graft with adequate fixation, but the addition of biologicals according to the so-called diamond concept has become increasingly popular in the treatment of non-unions. Previous studies have indicated that polytherapy, which involves implanting mesenchymal stem cells, bioactive factors and osteoconductive scaffolds, can improve bone healing. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of polytherapy compared with monotherapy in treating tibial non-unions of varying severity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data from consecutive tibial non-unions treated between November 2014 and July 2023 were retrospectively analysed. The Non Union Scoring System (NUSS) score before non-union surgery, and the Radiographic Union Score for Tibial fractures (RUST), scored at 1, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 18 months post-surgery, were recorded. Initially, a comparison was made between the polytherapy and monotherapy groups. Subsequently, patients receiving additional surgical non-union treatment were documented, and the frequency of these treatments was tallied for a subsequent per-treatment analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 34 patients were included and divided into a polytherapy group (n = 15) and a monotherapy group (n = 19). The polytherapy group demonstrated a higher NUSS score (44 (39, 52) versus 32 (29, 43), P = 0.019, z = -2.347) and a tendency towards a higher success rate (93% versus 68%, P = 0.104) compared with the monotherapy group. For the per-treatment analysis, 44 treatments were divided into the polytherapy per-treatment group (n = 20) and the monotherapy per-treatment group (n = 24). The polytherapy per-treatment group exhibited a higher NUSS score (48 (43, 60) versus 38 (30, 50), P = 0.030, z = -2.173) and a higher success rate (95% versus 58%, P = 0.006) than the monotherapy per-treatment group. Within the monotherapy per-treatment group, the NUSS score displayed excellent predictive performance (AUC = 0.9143). Setting the threshold value at 48, the sensitivity and specificity were 100.0% and 70.0%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Polytherapy is more effective than monotherapy for severe tibial non-unions, offering a higher success ratio. The NUSS score supports decision-making in treating tibial non-unions.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Fragment excision and triceps V-Y advanced reattachment using suture anchor for olecranon nonunion: A case report

RATIONALE

The nonunion of olecranon fractures is uncommon in simple fractures, and it is challenging to treat surgically due to the disruption of the anatomy of the elbow joint. There is limited literature on surgical options, and several factors to determine the treatment, including the amount and quality of bone stock, age, and degree of articular damage.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 58-year-old man presented at the clinic with neglected olecranon fracture for 1 year (case 1). A 74-year-old man (case 2) presented with consistent pain and limited of motion after surgery for olecranon fracture.

DIAGNOSIS

Both patients were diagnosed with olecranon nonunion.

INTERVENTION

Both patients received the excision of nonunited fragment and reattaching with V-Y advancement of triceps.

OUTCOMES

Range of motion and Mayo elbow performance score were improved after surgery.

LESSONS

This technique is useful in patients who cannot undergo other surgical options due to insufficient bone quality and elbow function, and it can lead to satisfactory outcomes with an acceptable range of motion and pain relief.

Preventing Atrophic Long-Bone Nonunion: Retrospective Analysis at a Level I Trauma Center

Background: Among the risk factors for nonunion are unchangeable patient factors such as the type of injury and comorbidities, and factors that can be influenced by the surgeon such as fracture treatment and the postoperative course. While there are numerous studies analyzing unchangeable factors, there is poor evidence for factors that can be affected by the physician. This raises the need to fill the existing knowledge gaps and lay the foundations for future prevention and in-depth treatment strategies. Therefore, the goal of this study was to illuminate knowledge about nonunion in general and uncover the possible reasons for their development; Methods: This was a retrospective analysis of 327 patients from 2015 to 2020 from a level I trauma center in Germany. Information about patient characteristics, comorbidities, alcohol and nicotine abuse, fracture classification, type of osteosynthesis, etc., was collected. Matched pair analysis was performed, and statistical testing performed specifically for atrophic long-bone nonunion; Results: The type of osteosynthesis significantly affected the development of nonunion, with plate osteosynthesis being a predictor for nonunion. The use of wire cerclage did not affect the development of nonunion, nor did the use of NSAIDs, smoking, alcohol, osteoporosis and BMI; Conclusion: Knowledge about predictors for nonunion and strategies to avoid them can benefit the medical care of patients, possibly preventing the development of nonunion.

Multifunctional Injectable Hydrogel Microparticles Loaded with miR-29a Abundant BMSCs Derived Exosomes Enhanced Bone Regeneration by Regulating Osteogenesis and Angiogenesis

The study investigated whether both the osteogenic and angiogenic potential of Exos (Exosomes) can be enhanced by overexpression of exosomal miRNA (microRNA) and to confirm whether Exos loaded in HMPs (Hydrogel microparticles) exert long-term effects during new bone formation. BMSCs and Exos are successfully obtained. In vitro and in vivo experiments confirmed that HDAC4 (Histone deacetylase 4) is inhibited by miR-29a overexpression accompanied by the upregulation of RUNX2 (Runt-related transcription factor 2) and VEGF (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor), thereby enhancing osteogenic and angiogenic capabilities. The HMP@Exo system is synthesized from HB-PEGDA (Hyperbranched Poly Ethylene Glycol Diacrylate)- and SH-HA (Sulfhydryl-Modified Hyaluronic Acid)-containing Exos using a microfluidic technique. The HMP surface is modified with RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp) peptides to enhance cell adhesion. The system demonstrated good injectability, remarkable compatibility, outstanding cell adhesion properties, and slow degradation capacity, and the sustained release of Agomir-29a-Exos (Exosomes derived from Agomir-29a transfected BMSCs) from HMPs enhanced the proliferation and migration of BMSCs and HUVECs (Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells) while promoting osteogenesis and angiogenesis. Overall, the findings demonstrate that the HMP@Exo system can effectively maintain the activity and half-life of Exos, accompanied by overexpression of miR-29a (microRNA-29a). The injectable system provides an innovative approach for accelerating fracture healing by coupling osteogenesis and angiogenesis.

Enhanced bone regeneration via endochondral ossification using Exendin-4-modified mesenchymal stem cells

Nonunions and delayed unions pose significant challenges in orthopedic treatment, with current therapies often proving inadequate. Bone tissue engineering (BTE), particularly through endochondral ossification (ECO), emerges as a promising strategy for addressing critical bone defects. This study introduces mesenchymal stem cells overexpressing Exendin-4 (MSC-E4), designed to modulate bone remodeling via their autocrine and paracrine functions. We established a type I collagen (Col-I) sponge-based in vitro model that effectively recapitulates the ECO pathway. MSC-E4 demonstrated superior chondrogenic and hypertrophic differentiation and enhanced the ECO cell fate in single-cell sequencing analysis. Furthermore, MSC-E4 encapsulated in microscaffold, effectively facilitated bone regeneration in a rat calvarial defect model, underscoring its potential as a therapeutic agent for bone regeneration. Our findings advocate for MSC-E4 within a BTE framework as a novel and potent approach for treating significant bone defects, leveraging the intrinsic ECO process.

Latest Progress of LIPUS in Fracture Healing: A Mini-Review

The use of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) for promoting fracture healing has been Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved since 1994 due to largely its non-thermal effects of sound flow sound radiation force and so on. Numerous clinical and animal studies have shown that LIPUS can accelerate the healing of fresh fractures, nonunions, and delayed unions in pulse mode regardless of LIPUS devices or circumstantial factors. Rare clinical studies show limitations of LIPUS for treating fractures with intramedullary nail fixation or low patient compliance. The biological effect is achieved by regulating various cellular behaviors involving mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs), osteoblasts, chondrocytes, and osteoclasts and with dose dependency on LIPUS intensity and time. Specifically, LIPUS promotes the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs through the ROCK-Cot/Tpl2-MEK-ERK signaling. Osteoblasts, in turn, respond to the mechanical signal of LIPUS through integrin, angiotensin type 1 (AT1), and PIEZO1 mechano-receptors, leading to the production of inflammatory factors such as COX-2, MCP-1, and MIP-1β fracture repair. LIPUS also induces CCN2 expression in chondrocytes thereby coordinating bone regeneration. Finally, LIPUS suppresses osteoclast differentiation and gene expression by interfering with the ERK/c-Fos/NFATc1 cascade. This mini-review revisits the known effects and mechanisms of LIPUS on bone fracture healing and strengthens the need for further investigation into the underlying mechanisms.

Silencing p75NTR regulates osteogenic differentiation and angiogenesis of BMSCs to enhance bone healing in fractured rats

BACKGROUND

Fractures heal through a process that involves angiogenesis and osteogenesis but may also lead to non-union or delayed healing. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) have been reported to play a pivotal role in bone formation and vascular regeneration and the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75NTR) as being an important regulator of osteogenesis. Herein, we aim to determine the potential mediation of BMSCs by p75NTR in bone healing.

METHODS

Rat BMSCs were identified by flow cytometry (FCM) to detect cell cycle and surface markers. Then transfection of si/oe-p75NTR was performed in BMSCs, followed by Alizarin red staining to detect osteogenic differentiation of cells, immunofluorescence double staining was performed to detect the expression of p75NTR and sortilin, co-immunoprecipitation (CO-IP) was conducted to analyze the interaction between p75NTR and sortilin, and EdU staining and cell scratch assay to assess the proliferation and migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). The expression of HIF-1α, VEGF, and apoptosis-related proteins were also detected. In addition, a rat fracture healing model was constructed, and BMSCs-si-p75NTR were injected, following which the fracture condition was observed using micro-CT imaging, and the expression of platelet/endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (CD31) was assessed.

RESULTS

The results showed that BMSCs were successfully isolated, p75NTR inhibited apoptosis and the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs, while si-p75NTR led to a decrease in sortilin expression in BMSCs, increased proliferation and migration in HUVECs, and upregulation of HIF-1α and VEGF expression. In addition, an interaction was observed between p75NTR and sortilin. The knockdown of p75NTR was found to reduce the severity of fracture in rats and increase the expression of CD31 and osteogenesis-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

Silencing p75NTR effectively modulates BMSCs to promote osteogenic differentiation and angiogenesis, offering a novel perspective for improving fracture healing.

Approach to Tibial Shaft Nonunions: Diagnosis and Management

The tibia is the most common long bone at risk for nonunion with an annual incidence ranging from 12% to 19%. This topic continues to be an area of research as management techniques constantly evolve. A foundational knowledge of the fundamental concepts, etiology, and risk factors for nonunions is crucial for success. Treatment of tibial shaft nonunions often requires a multidisciplinary effort. This article provides guidance based on the most recent literature that can be used to aid the treating provider in the diagnosis, workup, and management of tibial shaft nonunions.

Comparing outcomes of plate augmentation, nail exchange, and nail exchange with plate augmentation in the treatment of atrophic femoral shaft nonunion after intramedullary nailing: a multicenter retrospective study

INTRODUCTION

Intramedullary (IM) nailing is the treatment of choice for femoral shaft fractures, but nonunion rates have been reported to be as high as 12%. Surgical interventions for nonunion involve exchange nailing or plate augmentation. Recently, a combined treatment of exchange nailing and plate augmentation has demonstrated good results, but its comparative effectiveness remains unclear. This study aimed to compare the clinical and radiographic outcomes of three different surgical interventions for atrophic femoral shaft nonunion, and investigate the factors that affect bone healing after reoperation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted at five university hospitals involving 149 patients with aseptic atrophic nonunion after IM nailing. These patients underwent reoperation with plate augmentation, exchange nailing, or combined treatment. Clinical and radiographic outcomes were assessed and compared according to reoperation procedure. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify factors affecting persistent nonunion after reoperation.

RESULTS

Of the cohort, 57 patients underwent plate augmentation, 64 underwent exchange nailing, and 28 received combined treatment. There were no significant differences in patient demographics among the groups. Exchange nailing produced a significantly lower union rate than did the combined treatment (82.8% vs. 100%, p = 0.016), whereas no significant difference was observed in the union rate and time to the union between plate augmentation and the combined treatment. Combined treatment showed the longest operative time and the greatest transfusion requirements. The risk factors for persistent nonunion included age, absence of autogenous bone grafts, and use of an exchange nailing technique.

CONCLUSIONS

Exchange nailing as a treatment for atrophic femoral shaft nonunion after IM nailing resulted in a lower union rate. The efficacy of the combined treatment requires further study, and persistent nonunion may be influenced by age, bone grafting, and surgical techniques. A comprehensive approach targeting both biological environment and mechanical stability is crucial in the treatment of atrophic femoral shaft nonunion.

Results of a simple treatment protocol for aseptic femoral shaft nonunion in 330 patients

INTRODUCTION

Our primary aim of the study was to assess the results of a treatment protocol for aseptic femoral shaft nonunion treated by three techniques - Exchange Nailing (EN), Plate Augmentation (PA), and Exchange Nailing combined with Plate augmentation (NP). The secondary objective was to assess the radiological outcome, duration of surgery (DOS) and need for blood transfusion (BT) in all the three groups.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We analyzed 330 patients treated for AFNU between Jan 2007 and Dec 2019. Using a simple treatment algorithm, EN, PA and NP were performed in 24,183 and 123 patients respectively. Patients in all the three groups were assessed for radiological-union (union rate and time to union), DOS and BT.

RESULTS

Of these 330 patients, 327 (99 %) patients achieved radiological union at a mean duration of 6.07 months. Union rate is highest with NP followed by PA and EN. The union rate in patients with NP, PA and EN were 100 %, 99.5 % and 91.7 % respectively (p < 0.01). Time to union was lowest for NP followed by PA and EN (p < 0.001).The mean time to union for NP, PA and EN were 3.76, 7.2and 9.21 months respectively (p < 0.001). The mean DOS in minutes for NP, EN and PA was 107, 94 and 82 respectively (p < 0.01). The mean need for BT in the form of packed red blood cells for NP, PA and EN were 1.95, 1.87 and 1.38 units respectively (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Following a simple algorithm to decide treatment protocol on a case-to case basis helps to achieve good results in an optimal time period. When compared with EN and PA, NP is associated with 100 % union rate with least time to union making NP a reasonably effective procedure with a very high success rate.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

Distal Radius Nonunions: A Rare Entity?

Although distal radius fractures are common injuries, nonunion is extremely rare. Nonunion has been associated with increased metaphyseal comminution, concomitant distal ulna fracture, inadequate immobilization, and patient factors. Nonunion should be suspected in patients with persistent pain, limited range of motion, and worsening wrist deformity after wrist remobilization. Treatment selection depends on presence of infection, status of the radiocarpal and distal radioulnar joints, and type of prior surgical interventions. Multiple surgical techniques exist for managing distal radius nonunions including open reduction and internal fixation of the nonunion site with/without bone graft augmentation versus total wrist arthrodesis.

Synergistic effects of autologous platelet-rich plasma combined with an extracorporeal shock wave in treatment of long diaphysis aseptic nonunion

INTRODUCTION

Union of long bone fractures is a complicated biological mechanism affected by numerous systemic and local variables. Disruption of any of these components may result in fracture nonunion. There are various types of clinically available treatment strategies for aseptic nonunion. Both activated platelet plasma and extracorporeal shock waves play important roles in fracture healing. This study aimed to investigate the interaction of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and extracorporeal shock wave (ESW) in bone healing of nonunion.

HYPOTHESIS

PRP and ESW have synergistic effects in treating long bone nonunion.

METHODS

Between January 2016 and December 2021, a total of 60 patients with established nonunion of a long bone (18 tibias, 15 femurs, 9 humerus, 6 radii, and 12 ulnae) were included in this study, comprising 31 males and 29 females, ranging from 18 to 60 years old. Patients with bone nonunion were separated into two groups: PRP alone (Monotherapy group) and those treated with PRP combined with ESW (Combined treatment group). The two groups were compared to assess the therapeutic benefits, callus development, local problems, bone healing time, and Johner Wruhs functional classification of operated limbs.

RESULTS

Fifty-five patients were followed up, 5 patients were lost to follow-up, two in the PRP group and three in the PRP+ESW group, the follow-up time varied from 6 to 18 months, with an average of 12.7±5.2 months. At 8, 12, 16, 20, and 24 weeks following intervention, the callus score in the monotherapy group was significantly lower than in the combined treatment group (p<0.05). Both groups had no swelling and infection in the soft tissue of the nonunion operation site. In the PRP+ESW group, the fracture union rate was 92.59% and the healing time was 16.3±5.2 weeks. In the PRP group, the fracture union rate was 71.43% and the healing time was 21.5±3.7 weeks. The clinical healing time of the monotherapy group was significantly longer than the combined treatment group (p<0.05). All the nonunion patients with no signs of healing were treated with revision surgery. The excellent and good rate of Johner-Wruhs functional classification of affected limbs in the monotherapy group was significantly lower than in the combined treatment group (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

PRP combined with ESW has a certain synergistic effect in treating aseptic nonunion after fracture surgery. It can significantly improve the formation of new bone, it is a minimally invasive and effective strategy to treat aseptic nonunion in a clinical setting.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III, retrospective, single-centre, case-control study.

Long-term outcomes of atrophic/oligotrophic non-unions in dogs and cats treated with autologous iliac corticocancellous bone graft and circular external skeletal fixation: 19 cases (2014-2021)

OBJECTIVES

To determine the short- and long-term outcomes and complications in dogs and cats undergoing surgical treatment for viable oligotrophic and nonviable atrophic non-unions using circular external skeletal fixation and autologous corticocancellous bone graft.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this case series, the medical records and radiographs of all dogs and cats with radius/ulna and tibia/fibula viable oligotrophic and nonviable atrophic non-unions treated with corticocancellous bone graft and circular external skeletal fixation at two referral veterinary hospitals between 2014 and 2021 were retrospectively reviewed. The long-term follow-up was 1 year or greater.

RESULTS

Thirteen dogs and six cats with 19 non-union fractures met the inclusion criteria for the study. Eighteen non-union fractures (94.7%) healed and one did not. Five patients (26%) had minor perioperative period complications (<3 months). The patient that did not achieve bone union underwent revision surgery with internal fixation (plate and screws) and autologous cancellous bone graft. Fifteen (78.9%) cases returned to full function and three (15.8%) cases returned to acceptable function in the long-term follow-up period.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The use of circular external skeletal fixation associated with autologous corticocancellous bone graft for the treatment of radius/ulna and tibia/fibula atrophic/oligotrophic non-union fractures in dogs and cats was considered successful in the majority of patients and was free of major or catastrophic complications.

Principles and Evaluation of Bony Unions

Nonunion is a common and costly problem. Unfortunately, there is no widely agreed upon and standardized definition for nonunion. The evaluation of bony union should start with a thorough history and physical examination. The clinician should consider patient-dependent as well as patient-independent characteristics that may influence the rate of healing and evaluate the patient for physical examination findings suggestive of bony union and infection. Radiographs and clinical examination can help confirm a diagnosis of union. When the diagnosis is in doubt, however, advanced imaging modalities as well as laboratory studies can help a surgeon determine when further intervention is necessary.

Computational design and evaluation of the mechanical and electrical behavior of a piezoelectric scaffold: a preclinical study

Piezoelectric scaffolds have been recently developed to explore their potential to enhance the bone regeneration process using the concept of piezoelectricity, which also inherently occurs in bone. In addition to providing mechanical support during bone healing, with a suitable design, they are supposed to produce electrical signals that ought to favor the cell responses. In this study, using finite element analysis (FEA), a piezoelectric scaffold was designed with the aim of providing favorable ranges of mechanical and electrical signals when implanted in a large bone defect in a large animal model, so that it could inform future pre-clinical studies. A parametric analysis was then performed to evaluate the effect of the scaffold design parameters with regard to the piezoelectric behavior of the scaffold. The designed scaffold consisted of a porous strut-like structure with piezoelectric patches covering its free surfaces within the scaffold pores. The results showed that titanium or PCL for the scaffold and barium titanate (BT) for the piezoelectric patches are a promising material combination to generate favorable ranges of voltage, as reported in experimental studies. Furthermore, the analysis of variance showed the thickness of the piezoelectric patches to be the most influential geometrical parameter on the generation of electrical signals in the scaffold. This study shows the potential of computer tools for the optimization of scaffold designs and suggests that patches of piezoelectric material, attached to the scaffold surfaces, can deliver favorable ranges of electrical stimuli to the cells that might promote bone regeneration.

Antibiotic-Coated Intramedullary Nailing Managing Long Bone Infected Non-Unions: A Meta-Analysis of Comparative Studies

Long bone infected non-unions are such an orthopedic challenge that antibiotic-coated intramedullary nailing (ACIN) has become a viable therapeutic option for their management. This study aims to provide a comprehensive assessment of the available data about the use of antibiotic-coated nailing in the treatment of long bone infected non-unions. Following the PRISMA guideline in this meta-analysis, a systematic literature search was conducted across major databases for studies evaluating ACIN in long bone infected non-unions. The primary outcome measures included union rates, infection control, complications and functional status. Five eligible studies encompassing 183 patients in total met the inclusion criteria. The meta-analysis revealed no difference in the union rate in the antibiotic-coated intramedullary nailing group compared to that of the control group (OR = 1.73 [0.75-4.02]). Antibiotic-coated intramedullary nailing demonstrated no association with higher infection eradication (OR = 2.10 [0.97-4.54]). Also, functional outcome measure was mostly not significantly different between ACIN and control interventions. According to this meta-analysis, compared to the management of controls, ACIN is neither linked to increased union rates nor decreased infection rates. The paucity of research on this topic emphasizes the continuous need for additional well-designed randomized controlled trials for the application of antibiotics-coated intramedullary nailing in long bone non-unions.

A novel treatment of clavicular nonunion: Combination with PRP, autologous bone grafting, and internal plate fixation

BACKGROUND

Nonunion is a major concern for orthopedic surgeons, particularly nonunion of the clavicle, which can cause severe pain, loss of full range of motion, poor sleep quality, and loss of strength in the affected individuals. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP), an important biological agent, is widely used in orthopedics.

OBJECTIVE

We used a combination of three techniques - the PRP technique, autologous bone grafting technique, and internal plate fixation technique - to ensure adequate internal fixation and enable a bone growth-supportive environment at the fracture site.

METHODS

The surgical approach was applied to a patient with clavicle nonunion.

RESULTS

Based on postoperative follow-up findings and intraoperative findings at the time of re-removal of the patient's implant, the prognosis at the fracture site was considered satisfactory.

CONCLUSION

We observed that the patient treated with this method had favorable clinical outcomes, and we recommend that this technique be used in patients with long-bone nonunion.

Platelet-rich plasma in orthopedics: Bridging innovation and clinical applications for bone repair

In the burgeoning domain of orthopedic therapeutic research, Platelet-Rich Plasma (PRP) has firmly established its position, transforming paradigms ranging from tissue regeneration to the management of chondral lesions. This review delves into PRP's recent integrations with cutting-edge interventions such as 3D-printed scaffolds, its role in bone and cartilage defect management, and its enhanced efficacy when combined with molecules like Kartogenin (KGN) for fibrocartilage zone repair. Significant attention is paid to tissue engineering for meniscal interventions, where a combination of KGN, PRP, and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells are under exploration. Within the sphere of osteochondral regenerative therapy, the synergy of PRP with Bone Marrow Aspirate Concentrate (BMAC) represents a noteworthy leap towards cartilage regeneration. The innovative incorporation of PRP with biomaterials like hydroxyapatite and graphene oxide further underscores its versatility in supporting structural integrity and ensuring sustained growth factor release. However, while PRP's autologous and nontoxic nature makes it an inherently safe option, concerns arising from its preparation methods, particularly with bovine thrombin, necessitate caution. As of 2023, despite the burgeoning promise of PRP in bone healing, the quest for its standardization, optimization, and substantiation through rigorous clinical trials continues. This comprehensive review elucidates the contemporary applications, challenges, and future trajectories of PRP in orthopedics, aiming to spotlight areas primed for further research and exploration.

Single-plate versus double-plate comparison in the surgical treatment of comminuted clavicle fractures: Is the secondary plate reliable?

The objective of this study is to retrospectively assess the use of single-plate (SP) and double-plate (DP) fixation in the open reduction and internal fixation of comminuted clavicle fractures, focusing on fracture union and complications. We retrospectively evaluated comminuted diaphyseal clavicle fractures (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteosynthesefragen type 15.B1-3) treated with open reduction and internal fixation and having a minimum 1-year follow-up. Two patient cohorts were identified: DP (utilizing a superiorly located clavicle-specific plate and an anteriorly located tubular plate) and SP (utilizing a superiorly located clavicle-specific plate). These groups were compared in terms of union time, peri-incisional numbness, implant irritation, return to work time, union rates, re-operation rates, Disabilities of Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH), and American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons (ASES) scores. The study included 27 SP and 23 DP patients meeting the inclusion criteria. There was no significant difference between the 2 cohorts in terms of union time, peri-incisional numbness, implant irritation, return to work time, union rates, re-operation rates, DASH, and ASES scores at the end of the first year (P = .889, P = 1.00, P = .122, P = 1.00, P = 1.00, P = .493, P = .736, P = .762, P = .937 respectively). However, it was observed that the DP group showed a significantly earlier return to work time and better DASH scores at 3rd and 6th months, whereas the SP group exhibited significantly better ASES scores at 3rd and 6th months (P = .034, P = .016, P = .032, P = .036, P = .021, respectively). No significant difference was observed in terms of union and complications in acute clavicle fractures treated with SP and DP fixation. The DP group demonstrated an earlier return to work and superior early functional scores compared to the SP group. Our findings suggest that a secondary plate can be reliably used, particularly in situations where clavicle fracture fixation is insufficient or in cases of comminuted clavicle fractures.

Long non-coding RNA KCNQ10T1/miR-19a-3p/SMAD5 axis promotes osteogenic differentiation of mouse bone mesenchymal stem cells

BACKGROUND

Bone fracture is a common orthopedic disease that needs over 3 months to recover. Promoting the osteogenic differentiation of bone mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) is beneficial for fracture healing. Therefore, this research aimed to study the roles of long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) KCNQ10T1 in osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs.

METHODS

BMSCs were treated with osteogenic medium and assessed by CCK-8 and flow cytometry assays. Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining, alizarin red staining (ARS), as well as concentration of osteoblast markers were measured to evaluate osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. Western blot was employed to detect proteins; while, qRT-PCR was for mRNA levels. Additionally, targeted relationships between KCNQ10T1 and miR-19a-3p, as well as miR-19a-3p and SMAD5 were verified by dual luciferase reporter gene assay along with RNA pull-down method.

RESULTS

Upregulation of KCNQ10T1 promoted the ALP staining and ARS intensity, increased the cell viability and decreased the apoptosis rate of BMSCs. Besides, KCNQ10T1 overexpression increased the ALP, OPG, OCN and OPN protein levels. KCNQ10T1 sponges miR-19a-3p, which targets Smad5. Upregulated miR-19a-3p reversed the overexpressed KCNQ10T1-induced effects, and depletion of SMAD5 reversed the miR-19a-3p inhibitor-induced effects on osteogenic medium-treated BMSCs.

CONCLUSIONS

Upregulation of KCNQ10T1 promoted osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs through miR-19a-3p/SMAD5 axis in bone fracture.

Mesenchymal stem cells derived from the fibrotic tissue of atrophic nonunion or the bone marrow of iliac crest: A donor-matched comparison

Purpose

Atrophic nonunion is one of the most difficult complications of fracture. The cellular factors that contribute to atrophic nonunion are poorly understood, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are recognized as the key contributor to bone formation. This study aimed to characterize the MSCs isolated from the fibrotic tissue of atrophic nonunion (AN-MSCs) from the perspective of proliferation, differentiation potential, senescence, and paracrine function.

Methods

Human atrophic fibrotic tissue was obtained from four donors aged 29-37 for isolating AN-MSCs, and donor-matched bone marrow acquired from the iliac crest for isolating MSCs (IC-MSCs) as control. The AN-MSCs or IC-MSCs in passage 3 were applied for the following evaluations. The surface markers expressed on the two cells were evaluated using flow cytometry. The proliferation of the two cells for up to 11 days was comparatively investigated. After osteogenic, chondrogenic, or adipogenic induction, multi-lineage differentiation of AN-MSCs or IC-MSCs was comparatively evaluated using lineage-specific stains and lineage-specific gene expression. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assessment was applied to evaluate the paracrine function of AN-MSCs or IC-MSCs. Cellular senescence of AN-MSCs or IC-MSCs was evaluated using senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) staining.

Results

AN-MSCs or IC-MSCs from the four donors showed morphologic and immunophenotypic characteristics of MSCs, with the expression of MSCs markers and negative expression of hematopoietic markers. In general, AN-MSCs showed similar proliferation and adipogenic capacity with IC-MSCs. In contrast, IC-MSCs showed significantly higher osteogenic and chondrogenic capacity compared to AN-MSCs. Moreover, the culture medium of IC-MSCs contains significantly higher levels of VEGF, TGF-β1, PDGF-BB, and IGF-1 than the culture medium of AN-MSCs. Lastly, the AN-MSCs are more prone to cellular senescence than the IC-MSCs.

Conclusions

In-vitro, AN-MSCs were similar to IC-MSCs in proliferation and adipogenic capacity, but inferior to IC-MSCs in osteogenic and chondrogenic capacity, paracrine function, and anti-senescence.

Predictors requiring special attention to prevent clavicle fracture nonunion: a systematic review of literature

Background

Clavicle fracture (CF) is the tenth most prevalent fracture, accounting for an annual incidence of 37/10,000. This systematic review highlights the factors contributing to the nonunion union of the clavicular fracture.

Method

A systematic search was conducted using three web-based databases up to August 12, 2022, for conducting qualitative analysis. Articles were screened for relevance, and only studies that met inclusion criteria based on PECOS; P (patients): participants diagnosed with clavicular fracture; E (exposure): nonunion, C (control): not applicable; O (outcomes): factors contributing to nonunion or delayed union; S (studies): trials and observational studies. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the quality of the cohort studies. The Cochrane risk of bias tool was used to assess the bias in randomized control trials.

Results

Ten studies were selected after the final literature search. Two thousand seven hundred and sixty-six adult participants who were radiologically and clinically diagnosed with nonunion clavicular fracture were included to pool the qualitative results. Fall was the most dominant cause of clavicular fracture, followed by road traffic collisions. Open reduction was widely used to treat nonunion correction. The qualitative results suggested a prominent correlation of nonunion with advancing age, female gender, high energy trauma, high Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder, and Hand Score, smoking, fracture displacement, clavicular shortening, the callus on radiography, and fracture movement. The mid-shaft fracture was the most dominant type of fracture in the included studies; highly associated with nonunion in comparison to medial or lateral CF. The previous history of operation was an independent factor contributing to nonunion.

Conclusion

The results of this systematic review suggested the predictors contributing to nonunion in the CF. Demographic factors such as advancing age with female gender are at higher risk of developing clavicular nonunion. Smoking was the most dominantly highlighted environmental factor contributing to nonunion. Diaphyseal or midshaft fracture was the most common site for nonunion. Therefore, we suggested that patients with the predictors mentioned above require special attention to prevent nonunion of the CFs. More studies should be conducted on this subject to assess the factors that pose a risk associated with the nonunion of the bone for better clinical management and outcomes of the fracture.

Is Sliding Compression Necessary for Intramedullary Nailing Fixation of AO/OTA Type A3.3 Intertrochanteric Fracture?

OBJECTIVES

The intramedullary nail is considered the gold standard for treating AO/OTA type A3.3 intertrochanteric fractures. However, it still faces a significant rate of failure, mainly due to the critical factor of comminuted lateral wall defects leading to inadequate proximal sliding compression. The primary objective of this study is to investigate the requirement of sliding compression in the treatment of unstable AO/OTA type A3.3 intertrochanteric fractures. To achieve this, we conduct a comparative analysis between two approaches: InterTAN alone and proximal femoral anti-rotation blade nailing (PFNA) combined with lateral wall reconstruction for treating AO/OTA type A3.3 intertrochanteric fractures with lateral wall damage.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical data of patients who underwent intramedullary nailing fixation for AO/OTA type A3.3 intertrochanteric fractures at our hospital from January 2012 to January 2022. Patient characteristics as well as treatment details, including operative time, intraoperative blood loss, weight-bearing time, fracture healing time, tip apex distance (TAD) loss, Harris hip scores (HHS), Parker-Palmer mobility score (PPMS), and postoperative complications, were collected and analyzed. Continuous variables were analyzed using independent sample t-tests, while categorical variables were examined using the chi-square test. For group comparisons, variance analysis was applied, and pairwise comparisons were conducted using the LSD-t test.

RESULTS

These patients were divided into PFNA combined with lateral wall reconstruction group (sliding compression group) and InterTAN fixation group (static fixation group) based on surgical methods. The operation time, intraoperative bleeding loss, HHS at 12 months and PPMS at 12 months in the sliding compression group were significantly higher than those in the static fixation group, and time to weight-bearing and fracture healing time were significantly lower than those in the static fixation group (p < 0.05). There were no significant differences between two groups in terms of the TAD at 2 days, 2, and 12 months postoperatively, the incidence of complications (p > 0.05). At 6 months postoperatively, femoral neck length was shortened compared to 2 days postoperatively in both groups, and the sliding compression group had a significantly greater degree of femoral neck shortening than the static fixation group (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The use of PFNA with lateral wall reconstruction for A3.3 intertrochanteric fractures demonstrated superior mobility, efficiency, and reduced internal fixation failure rates compared to InterTAN. These findings suggest that sliding compression may be required for intramedullary nailing treatment.

Familial Analysis of Nonunion in a Genealogic Population Database Demonstrates No Evidence of Heritable Risk

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether there is evidence of heritable risk for nonunion using a large, state-wide population database.

DESIGN

Database.

SETTING

Level 1 Trauma Center.

POPULATION

All Utah residents from 1996 to 2021 who sustained a long bone fracture and their family members were included.

OUTCOMES

The primary outcome was nonunion and the prevalence of nonunion among the patients' first-, second-, and third-degree relatives. The secondary objective was to identify demographic, injury, and socioeconomic risk factors associated with nonunion.

RESULTS

In total, 150,263 fractures and 6577 nonunions (4.4%) were identified. This was highly refined to a 1:3 matched cohort of 4667 nonunions of 13,981 fractures for familial clustering analysis. Cox proportional hazards did not demonstrate excessive risk of nonunion among first- ( P = 0.863), second- ( P = 0.509), and third-degree relatives ( P = 0.252). Further analysis of the entire cohort demonstrated that male sex (relative risk [RR] = 1.15; P < 0.001), Medicaid enrollment (RR = 2.64; P < 0.001), open fracture (RR = 2.53; P < 0.001), age group 41-60 years (RR = 1.43; P < 0.001), and a history of obesity (RR = 1.20; P < 0.001) were independent risk factors for nonunion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate no evidence of heritable risk for nonunion. Independent risk factors for nonunion were male sex, Medicaid enrollment, open fracture, middle age, and a history of obesity. Although it is important to identify modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors, these results continue to support that the risk of nonunion is multifactorial, relating to injury characteristics, operative techniques, and patient-specific risk factors.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Evaluation of How Methacrylate Gelatin Hydrogel Loaded with Ximenia americana L. Extract (Steam Bark) Effects Bone Repair Activity Using Rats as Models

The use of bioactive materials, such as Ximenia americana L., to stimulate the bone repair process has already been studied; however, the synergistic effects of its association with light emitting diode (LED) have not been reported. The present work aims to evaluate the effect of its stem bark extract incorporated into methacrylate gelatin hydrogel (GelMA) on the bone repair process using pure hydrogel and hydrogel associated with LED therapy. For this purpose, the GelMA hydrogel loaded with Ximenia americana L. extract (steam bark) was produced, characterized and applied in animal experiments. The tests were performed using 50 male Wistar rats (divided into 5 groups) submitted to an induced tibia diaphyseal fracture. The therapy effects were verified for a period of 15 and 30 days of treatment using histological analysis and Raman spectroscopy. After 15 days of induced lesion/treatment, the new bone formation was significantly higher in the GXG (GelMA + X. americana L.) group compared to the control group (p < 0.0001). After 30 days, a statistically significant difference was observed when comparing the GXLEDG (GelMA + X. americana L. + LED) and the control group (p < 0.0001), the GXG and the control group (p < 0.001), and when comparing the GG, GXG (p < 0.005) and GXLEDG (p < 0.001) groups. The results shows that the Ximenia americana L. stem extract incorporated into GelMA hydrogel associated with LED therapy is a potentiator for animal bone repair.

The m6A Reader YTHDF1 Accelerates the Osteogenesis of Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells Partly via Activation of the Autophagy Signaling Pathway

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) mRNA methylation has emerged as an important player in many biological processes by regulating gene expression. As a crucial reader, YTHDF1 usually improves the translation efficiency of its target mRNAs. However, its roles in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) osteogenesis remain largely unknown. Here, we reported that YTHDF1, an m6A reader, is highly expressed during osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. Upregulation of YTHDF1 increased osteogenic differentiation and proliferation capacity of BMSCs. Accordingly, downregulation of YTHDF1 inhibited osteogenic differentiation and proliferation capacity. Possible underlying mechanisms were explored, and analysis revealed that YTHDF1 could affect autophagy levels, thus regulating osteogenesis of BMSCs. In an in vivo study, we found that upregulation of YTHDF1 accelerates fracture healing with elevated bone volume fraction and trabecular thickness. Taken together, our study revealed that m6A reader YTHDF1 accelerates osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs partly via the autophagy signaling pathway. These findings reveal a previously unrecognized mechanism involved in the regulation of BMSCs osteogenesis, providing new ideas and target sites for the treatment of fracture.

Matched-Pair Analysis: Large-Sized Defects in Surgery of Lower Limb Nonunions

BACKGROUND

The treatment of large-sized bone defects remains a major challenge in trauma and orthopaedic surgery. Although there are many treatment options, there is still no clear guidance on surgical management, and the influence of defect size on radiological and clinical outcome remains unclear due to the small number of affected patients. The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of defect size on the outcome of atrophic and infected nonunions of the tibia or the femur based on the diamond concept in order to provide recommendations for treatment guidance.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

All medical records, surgical reports, laboratory data and radiological images of patients treated surgically for atrophic or infected nonunions of the lower limbs (femur or tibia) between 1 January 2010 and 31 December 2020 were examined. Patients with proximal, diaphyseal or distal nonunions of the femur or tibia who were surgically treated at our institution according to the "diamond concept" and attended our standardised follow-up program were included in a database. Surgical treatment was performed as a one- or two-step procedure, depending on the type of nonunion. Patients with a segmental bone defect ≥5 cm were matched with patients suffering a bone defect <5 cm based on five established criteria. According to our inclusion and exclusion criteria, 70 patients with a bone defect ≥5 cm were suitable for analysis. Two groups were formed by matching: the study group (bone defect ≥5 cm; n = 39) and control group (bone defect <5 cm; n = 39). The study was approved by the local ethics committee (S-262/2017).

RESULTS

The mean defect size was 7.13 cm in the study and 2.09 cm in the control group. The chi-square test showed equal consolidation rates between the groups (SG: 53.8%; CG: 66.7%). However, the Kaplan-Meier curve and log-rank test showed a significant difference regarding the mean duration until consolidation was achieved, with an average of 15.95 months in the study and 9.24 months in the control group (α = 0.05, p = 0.001). Linear regression showed a significant increase in consolidation duration with increasing defect size (R² = 0.121, p = 0.021). Logistic regression modelling showed a significant negative correlation between consolidation rate and revision performance, as well as an increasing number of revisions, prior surgeries and total number of surgeries performed on the limb. Clinical outcomes showed equal full weight bearing of the lower extremity after 5.54 months in the study vs. 4.86 months in the control group (p = 0.267).

CONCLUSION

Surprisingly, defect size does not seem to have a significant effect on the consolidation rate and should not be seen as a risk factor. However, for the treatment of large-sized nonunions, the follow-up period should be prolonged up to 24 months, due to the extended time until consolidation will be achieved. This period should also pass before a premature revision with new bone augmentation is performed. In addition, it should be kept in mind that as the number of previous surgeries and revisions increases, the prospects for consolidation decrease and a change in therapeutic approach may be required.

Factors Informing the Development of a Clinical Pathway and Patients' Quality of Life after a Non-Union Fracture of the Lower Limb

Patients with non-union fractures spend extended periods of time in the hospital following poor healing. Patients have to make several follow-up visits for medical and rehabilitation purposes. However, the clinical pathways and quality of life of these patients are unknown. This prospective study aimed to identify the clinical pathways (CPs) of 22 patients with lower-limb non-union fractures whilst determining their quality of life. Data were collected from hospital records from admission to discharge, utilizing a CP questionnaire. We used the same questionnaire to track patients' follow-up frequency, involvement in activities of daily living, and final outcomes at six months. We used the Short Form-36 questionnaire to assess patients' initial quality of life. The Kruskal-Wallis test compared the quality of life domains across different fracture sites. We examined CPs using medians and inter-quantile ranges. During the six-month follow-up period, 12 patients with lower-limb non-union fractures were readmitted. All of the patients had impairments, limited activity, and participation restrictions. Lower-limb fractures can have a substantial impact on emotional and physical health, and lower-limb non-union fractures may have an even greater effect on the emotional and physical health of patients, necessitating a more holistic approach to patient care.

Comparison of surgical treatments for distal ulna fracture when combined with anterior locking plate fixation of distal radius in the over 70 age group

We conducted a retrospective multicentre study to compare the clinical and radiographic outcomes, and complications of three surgical treatments of distal ulna fracture (DUF) when combined with anterior locking plate fixation for distal radial fracture (DRF) in patients over 70 years of age. We identified 1521 patients over 70 years of age who were diagnosed as having DRF and who underwent anterior locking plate fixation between 2015 and 2020, among which 122 cases of DUF were analysed. Three surgical treatment options for DUF were identified in this cohort: K-wire fixation (Group K), locking plate fixation (Group L) and Darrach procedure (Group D). The results of the analysis showed the total immobilization period in Group D to be the shortest among the three treatments. Functional outcomes were superior, and the rate of complications were smaller in Group D than in Group L. In addition, rotational range of motion was larger in Group D and Group L compared with Group K. In patients who are 70 years of age or older with combined unstable DRF and highly comminuted or displaced DUF, the Darrach procedure for DUF seems to be the most useful and reasonable treatment option once the fracture of the distal radius has been rigidly fixed.Level of evidence: IV.

Management of Isolated Ulnar Shaft Fractures

» Most isolated ulnar shaft fractures are stable and heal without complication regardless of treatment protocol.» Casting above the elbow may create unwanted stiffness without enhancing union rates.» Defining unstable fractures and determining which injuries would benefit from operative management remain a challenge.» Recent development of intramedullary devices has shown promise in preliminary studies, but more vigorous investigation is needed to determine their role.

Efficacy of Postoperative Radiographs After Intramedullary Nailing of the Tibia and Femur: When Are They Useful?

INTRODUCTION

Postoperative radiographs are used to monitor fractures of the tibia and femur after intramedullary fixation. This study sought to examine how frequently these radiographs change management.

METHODS

This was a single-center chart review of patients over a 4-year period at a level I trauma center. Radiographs were defined as either performed for routine surveillance or performed with some clinical correlate on history and examination. Participants received intramedullary nailing for diaphyseal fractures of the femur or tibia. Patients required at least one postoperative radiograph. All patients were subject to our institution's follow-up protocol: visits at 2, 6, 12, and 24 weeks. Radiographs that changed management were those that led to alterations in follow-up, directed counseling, or contributed to the decision to proceed with revision surgery.

RESULTS

A total of 374 patients were found. Two hundred seventy-seven received at least one post-op radiograph. The median follow-up was 23 weeks. Six hundred seventeen total radiographs were reviewed. Nine radiographs contributed to a change in management (9/617 = 1.5%). No surveillance radiograph taken before 14 weeks resulted in changes in management.

DISCUSSION

Our results suggest that radiographs taken in the first 3 months post-op in asymptomatic patients treated with lower extremity intramedullary rods do not result in changes to clinical management.

Surgical treatment of sacral nonunions

Sacral fractures are complex injuries that follow a bimodal distribution, typically involving acute high energy trauma in young adults and low energy trauma in older adults (> 65 years old). Nonunion is a rare but debilitating potential complication of undiagnosed or improperly managed sacral fractures. Various surgical techniques, including open reduction and internal fixation, sacroplasty, and percutaneous screw fixation, have been used to manage these fracture nonunions. In addition to reviewing the initial management of sacral fractures and the risk factors for fracture nonunion, this article describes techniques, specific cases and outcomes of these treatment strategies.

Outcome analysis of ilizarov and monorail fixators in the treatment of nonunion of long bones: A systematic review and proportion meta-analysis

Introduction

Nonunion of long bones is a major complication following fractures that requires a substantial amount of investment both monetary and time from patients and surgeons. The need to comprehensively understand the complications, outcomes and distraction capability is profound, which necessitates a review of current evidence on special fixators used for distraction. The current systematic review aims to study the available literature on distraction osteogenesis using special fixators (Ilizarov and Limb Reconstruction System) in the management of nonunion (infected and non-infected).

Methods

Cochrane Library, PubMed, Scopus were searched until January 2022. The review included all original studies which used Ilizarov or Monorail Fixators/LRS in the treatment of nonunion of long bones. The quality of studies was assessed using the Modified Coleman Methodology Score.

Results

A total of 35 original studies with Ilizarov (n = 29) and LRS (n = 8) were selected including two comparative studies. The pooled data meta-analysis and the subgroup analysis of these studies found both Ilizarov and LRS fixator yield similar functional outcomes for the treatment of long bones nonunion.

Conclusion

The review was conducted to understand the scenario of nonunion in long bones. Pin tract infection is found to be the most common complication followed by adjacent joint stiffness and deformity. In our review we observed that both external fixator time and index were lower in LRS compared to Ilizarov group. Further RCT are required comparing Ilizarov and LRS fixators to effectively comment upon the superiority of the implants.