Nanofibrous microfiltration membranes capable of removing bacteria, viruses and heavy metal ions

Efficient removal of water bacteria and viruses using electrospun nanofibers

Pathogenic contamination has been considered as a significant worldwide water quality concern. Due to providing promising opportunities for the production of nanocomposite membranes with tailored porosity, adjustable pore size, and scaled-up ability of biomolecules incorporation, electrospinning has become the center of attention. This review intends to provide a detailed summary of the recent advances in the fabrication of antibacterial and antiviral electrospun nanofibers and discuss their application efficiency as a water filtration membrane. The current review attempts to give a functionalist perspective of the fundamental progress in construction strategies of antibacterial and antiviral electrospun nanofibers. The review provides a list of antibacterial and antiviral agents commonly used as water membrane filters and discusses the challenges in the incorporation process. We have thoroughly studied the recent application of functionalized electrospun nanofibers in the water disinfection process, with an emphasis on their efficiency. Moreover, different antibacterial and antiviral assay techniques for membranes are discussed, the gaps and limitations are highlighted and promising strategies to overcome barriers are studies.

Functionalized electrospun nanofiber membranes for water treatment: A review

Electrospun nanofiber membranes (ENMs) have high porosity, high specific surface area and unique interconnected structure. It has huge advantages and potential in the treatment and recycling of wastewater. In addition, ENMs can be easily functionalized by combining multifunctional materials to achieve different water treatment effects. Based on this, this review summarizes the preparation of functionalized ENMs and its detailed application in the field of water treatment. First, the process and influence factors of electrospinning process are introduced. ENMs with high porosity, thin and small fiber diameter have better performance. Secondly, the modification methods of ENMs are analyzed. Pre-electrospinning and post-electrospinning modification technology can prepare specific functionalized ENMs. Subsequently, functionalized ENMs show water treatment capabilities such as separation, adsorption, photocatalysis, and antimicrobial. Subsequently, the application of functionalized ENMs in water treatment capabilities such as separation, adsorption, photocatalysis, and antimicrobial capabilities were listed. Finally, we also made some predictions about the future development direction of ENMs in water treatment, and hope this article can provide some clues and guidance for the research of ENMs in water treatment.

Ultrathin Cellulose Voronoi-Nanonet Membranes Enable High-Flux and Energy-Saving Water Purification

Creating a desirable porous membrane with high-flux and energy-saving properties for the purification of water containing submicron-sized contaminants, especially pathogenic microbes, is of great significance, yet a great challenge. Herein, we demonstrate a facile methodology to construct an innovative membrane with continuous cellulose Voronoi-nanonet structures via nonsolvent-induced phase separation. This approach enables cellulose Voronoi nanonets to tightly weld with electrospun nanofibrous substrates by controlling the solvent-nonsolvent mutual diffusion process. The resultant membranes exhibit integrated properties of small pore size (0.23 μm), high porosity (90.7%), good interconnectivity, and ultrathin thickness (∼600 nm, 2 orders of magnitude thinner than the conventional microfiltration membrane). As a result, the prepared membranes can effectively intercept submicron particles (∼0.3 μm) with robust rejection efficiency (>99.80%) and ultrahigh permeation flux (maximum of 8834 L m^-2 h^-1) under an extremely low driving pressure (≤20 kPa). More importantly, prominent bacterial rejection efficiency with a log reduction value (LRV) of 8.0 (overcoming the previous limitation of LRV <7) and outstanding antifouling function are also achieved for the membranes. The successful fabrication of such a versatile membrane may provide new insights into the development of next-generation high-performance separation materials for various applications.

Electrospun Nanofibers for Chemical Separation

The separation and purification of specific chemicals from a mixture have become necessities for many environments, including agriculture, food science, and pharmaceutical and biomedical industries. Electrospun nanofiber membranes are promising materials for the separation of various species such as particles, biomolecules, dyes, and metals from liquids because of the combined properties of a large specific surface, light weight, high porosity, good connectivity, and tunable wettability. This paper reviews the recent progress in the design and fabrication of electrospun nanofibers for chemical separation. Different capture mechanisms including electrostatic, affinity, covalent bonding, chelation, and magnetic adsorption are explained and their distinct characteristics are highlighted. Finally, the challenges and future aspects of nanofibers for membrane applications are discussed.

Nanocellulose: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications

Over the past few years, nanocellulose (NC), cellulose in the form of nanostructures, has been proved to be one of the most prominent green materials of modern times. NC materials have gained growing interests owing to their attractive and excellent characteristics such as abundance, high aspect ratio, better mechanical properties, renewability, and biocompatibility. The abundant hydroxyl functional groups allow a wide range of functionalizations via chemical reactions, leading to developing various materials with tunable features. In this review, recent advances in the preparation, modification, and emerging application of nanocellulose, especially cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), are described and discussed based on the analysis of the latest investigations (particularly for the reports of the past 3 years). We start with a concise background of cellulose, its structural organization as well as the nomenclature of cellulose nanomaterials for beginners in this field. Then, different experimental procedures for the production of nanocelluloses, their properties, and functionalization approaches were elaborated. Furthermore, a number of recent and emerging uses of nanocellulose in nanocomposites, Pickering emulsifiers, wood adhesives, wastewater treatment, as well as in new evolving biomedical applications are presented. Finally, the challenges and opportunities of NC-based emerging materials are discussed.

Analysis of microbial contamination of household water purifiers

Household water purifiers are increasingly used to treat drinking water at the household level, but their influence on the microbiological safety of drinking water has rarely been assessed. In this study, representative purifiers, based on different filtering processes, were analyzed for their impact on effluent water quality. The results showed that purifiers reduced chemical qualities such as turbidity and free chlorine. However, a high level of bacteria (10²-10⁶ CFU/g) was detected at each stage of filtration using a traditional culture-dependent method, whereas quantitative PCR with propidium monoazide (PMA) treatment showed 10⁶-10⁸ copies/L of total viable bacteria in effluent water, indicating elevated microbial contaminants after purifiers. In addition, high-throughput sequencing revealed a diverse microbial community in effluents and membranes. Proteobacteria (22.06-97.42%) was the dominant phylum found in all samples, except for purifier B, in which Melainabacteria was most abundant (65.79%). For waterborne pathogens, Escherichia coli (10⁰-10⁶ copies/g) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (10⁰-10⁵ copies/g) were frequently detected by qPCR. Sequencing also demonstrated the presence of E. coli (0-6.26%), Mycobacterium mucogenicum (0.01-3.46%), and P. aeruginosa (0-0.16%) in purifiers. These finding suggest that water from commonly used household purifiers still impose microbial risks to human health.

A superhydrophilic bilayer structure of a nylon 6 nanofiber/cellulose membrane and its characterization as potential water filtration media

A bilayer structure of a nylon 6 nanofibrous membrane on a cellulose membrane has been successfully developed for water filter application. The nylon 6 nanofibrous membrane was deposited on the cellulose membrane via the electrospinning technique. The bilayer membrane properties, including mechanical strength, wettability, porosity, and microfiltration performance (flux and rejection), were thoroughly investigated. The membrane properties were studied using nylon 6 nanofibrous membranes having various fiber diameters and membrane thicknesses, which were obtained by adjusting the solution concentration and spinning time. The measurement of solution parameters, i.e., viscosity, conductivity, and surface tension, showed a strong relationship between the solution concentration and these parameters, which later changed the fabricated fiber sizes. The FTIR spectra depicted complete solvent evaporation after the electrospinning process. Smaller nanofiber diameters could improve the mechanical strength of the membranes. The porosity test showed a strong relationship between the nanofiber diameter and the pore size and pore distribution of the membranes. The water contact angle measurement showed the significant influence of the cellulose membrane on increasing the hydrophilicity of the bilayer structure, which then improved the membrane flux. The particle rejection test, using PSL sizes of 308 and 450 nm, showed high rejection (above 98%) for all sample thickness variations. Overall, the bilayer structure of the nylon 6 nanofibers/cellulose membranes showed excellent and promising performance as water filter media.

The SEM image of (a) cellulose membrane and (b) the bilayer structure of a nylon 6 nanofibrous membrane on a cellulose membrane as water filter media.

Repeated pressurization as a potential cause of deterioration in virus removal by aged reverse osmosis membrane used in households

Reverse osmosis (RO) membrane is widely used for household water treatment in areas with limited access to safe drinking water; however, some studies documented deterioration in the quality of RO permeate. Repeated pressurization from intermittent operation in households is suspected to have an adverse effect on RO. This study aimed to evaluate virus removal by RO used in actual households as well as the water quality of permeate, and to elucidate the main cause of RO deterioration. We conducted a survey in households in Hanoi, Vietnam, to collect 27 membranes along with their usage history, where virus removal was investigated in laboratory. Of the used RO membranes, 22% did not show the protective level, >3 log₁₀ (99.9%) virus removal, recommended by World Health Organization. The differences in virus removal among Aichi virus, MS2 and φX-174 were <0.5 log₁₀. All membranes with estimated pressurization times of <4000 showed >3 log₁₀ virus removal, while 17% of membranes used for <3years, the manufacturers' warranty period, did not achieve the criterion. Therefore, virus removal performance may not be assured even if the users replace the membrane following the warranty period. Furthermore, more pressurized membranes exhibited significantly lower virus removal than less pressurized ones, suggesting a major role of repeated pressurization in the deterioration of RO. Coliforms were detected from 44% of the permeate of the point-of-use devices applying RO (RO-POU), raising concerns on the extrinsic contamination and regrowth of bacteria. Consequently, RO in households may deteriorate more rapidly than the manufactures' expectation due to repeated pressurization. RO in households should be replaced based on not only membrane age but also total pressurized times (i.e., 4000 times) to keep the protective level of virus removal. The deteriorated bacterial quality in RO permeate suggested the need for installing post-treatment, such as UV irradiation.

A Brief Review of Nanocellulose Based Hybrid Membranes for CO2 Separation

Due to the high specific surface area, high mechanical strength and broad possibility of surface modification, nanocellulose has obtained much attention as a new class of bio-based nanomaterials with promising potential in a wide variety of applications. Recently, a considerable amount of research has been aimed to the fabrication of nanocellulose based hybrid membranes for water treatment. However, nanocellulose based hybrid gas separation membrane is still a new research area. Herein, we force on recent advancements in the fabrication methods and separation performances of nanocellulose-based hybrid membranes for CO2 separation, the transport mechanisms involved, along with the challenges in the utilization of nanocellulose in membranes. Finally, some perspectives on future R&D of nanocellulose-based membranes for CO2 separation are proposed.

Removal of arsenic using functionalized cellulose nanofibrils from aqueous solutions

Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF) functionalized by introduction of trimethylammonium chloride were investigated for the uptake of arsenate [As(V)] from aqueous solutions. The modified-CNF was characterized using Energy Dispersive Spectrometry (EDS), argentometric titration, Boehr titration, zeta-potential, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourrier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmet-Teller (BET), and Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS). The modified-CNF was effective for As(V) removal from laboratory and field samples. The As(V) adsorption was rapid and equilibrium was attained within two hours. The kinetic data were adequately described by the pseudo-second-order kinetics model suggesting that As(V) adsorption onto modified-CNF involves electrostatic forces and bonds between As(V) and adsorption sites. The adsorption isotherm data were well correlated with model. The modified-CNF exhibited an As(V) adsorption capacity (q_e) of approximately 25.5 mg g^-1. Competitive adsorption between As(V) and anions including NO₂^-, NO₃^-, and SO₄^2- was investigated and the results showed negligible influence on As(V) removal. However, PO₄^3- presence slightly reduced As(V) adsorption. Thermodynamics study showed that the As(V) adsorption onto modified-CNF is temperature dependent and is spontaneous and exothermic. Overall, the results of this study demonstrated that modified-CNF offers a propitious alterative for As(V) removal from water.

Design of ultrathin hybrid membranes with improved retention efficiency of molecular dyes

Nanocellulose–graphene oxide ultrathin coatings for water purification membranes with excellent swelling resistance, permeability and dyes retention are presented.

Hierarchical fibrous microfiltration membranes by self-assembling DBS nanofibrils in solution-blown nanofibers

A novel hierarchical nanofibrous membrane was demonstrated via in situ self-assembly of 1,3:2,4-dibenzylidene-d-sorbitol (DBS) supramolecular fibrils in solution-blown polyacrylonitrile (PAN) nanofibers. The formed DBS fibrils were interconnected into networks and anchored onto the PAN nanofibers, which decreased the pore sizes and enhanced the mechanical properties, the filtration efficiency, and particularly the flux.

Nanocellulose: Recent advances and its prospects in environmental remediation

Among many other sustainable functional nanomaterials, nanocellulose is drawing increasing interest for use in environmental remediation technologies due to its numerous unique properties and functionalities. Nanocellulose is usually derived from the disintegration of naturally occurring polymers or produced by the action of bacteria. In this review, some invigorating perspectives on the challenges, future direction, and updates on the most relevant uses of nanocellulose in environmental remediation are discussed. The reported applications and properties of nanocellulose as an adsorbent, photocatalyst, flocculant, and membrane are reviewed in particular. However, additional effort will be required to implement and commercialize nanocellulose as a viable nanomaterial for remediation technologies. In this regard, the main challenges and limitations in working with nanocellulose-based materials are identified in an effort to improve the development and efficient use of nanocellulose in environmental remediation.

Current State and New Trends in the Use of Cellulose Nanomaterials for Wastewater Treatment

Nanotechnology has been identified as having great potential for improving the efficiency of water prevention and purification while reducing costs. In this field, two applications of nanocellulose have generated attention and have proven to be a sound strategy as an adsorbent and as a membrane for the removal of contaminants. This potential is attributed to its high aspect ratio, high specific surface area, high capacity retention, and environmental inertness. In addition to the aforementioned advantages, the presence of active sites allows the incorporation of chemical moieties that may enhance the binding efficiency of pollutants to the surface. This review paper intends to understand how nanocellulose affects the adsorption behavior of water pollutants, e.g., heavy metal ions, microbes, dyes, and organic molecules, and is divided in two parts. First, a general overview of the different strategies for the preparation of nanocellulose is described, and its specific properties are reported. The second section reports some of its application as adsorbent nanomaterial or separation membrane. It appears that the use of nanocellulose for these applications is very promising for wastewater treatment industries.

Enhanced lead and cadmium removal using biochar-supported hydrated manganese oxide (HMO) nanoparticles: Behavior and mechanism

Hydrated manganese oxide (HMO) nanoparticles were impregnated into a peanut shell-derived biochar (BC) to obtain a remarkable nanocomposite adsorbent, HMO-BC, which overcomes the technical barriers of singly applying either HMO or BC in practical heavy metal-containing wastewater treatment. HMO-BC can effectively sequestrate Pb(II) and Cd(II) in a wide pH range of 3-7 and exhibited more preferable sorption than bare BC in the presence of high-level competing cations. BC also significantly lowered the Mn leaching at acidic pH. Fixed-bed column adsorption tests showed that the effective treatment volume of HMO-BC for a simulated Pb(II)- or Cd(II)-laden wastewater is about 4-6 times higher than that of the BC host. In addition, HMO-BC was effective in removing Pb(II) from a real Pb-containing electroplating wastewater to discharge limit (0.2mgL^-1) with treatable volume of 525BV, much higher than that of the bare BC (60BV). More importantly, the saturated HMO-BC can be thoroughly regenerated for repeated uses without any observable capacity loss. Such attractive results of HMO-BC were attributed to the complementary effect of its two components. The embedded HMO nanoparticles provide preferable capture of target cations through specific inner-sphere complexation, as illustrated by XPS spectra of Pb 4f_7/2 and O1s, while the non-diffusive negatively charged oxygen-containing groups bound to BC facilitate the pre-enrichment and permeation of Pb(II) and Cd(II) cations into the pore channels prior to their preferable sorption through the Donnan membrane effect.

Anti-organic fouling and anti-biofouling poly(piperazineamide) thin film nanocomposite membranes for low pressure removal of heavy metal ions

Propensity towards anti-organic fouling, anti-biofouling property and low rejection of multivalent cation (monovalent counter ion) restricts the application of the state-of-art poly(piperazineamide) [poly(PIP)] thin film composite (TFC) nanofiltration (NF) membrane for the treatment of water containing toxic heavy metal ions, organic fouling agents and microbes. Herein, we report the preparation of thin film nanocomposite (TFNC) NF membranes with improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy, anti-biofouling property, and anti-organic fouling properties compared to that of poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane. The TFNC NF membranes were prepared by the interfacial polymerization (IP) between PIP and trimesoyl chloride followed by post-treatment with polyethyleneimine (PEI) or PEI-polyethylene glycol conjugate and then immobilization of Ag NP. The IP was conducted on a polyethersulfone/poly(methyl methacrylate)-co-poly(vinyl pyrollidone)/silver nanoparticle (Ag NP) blend ultrafiltration membrane support. The TFNC membranes exhibited >99% rejection of Pb²⁺, 91-97% rejection of Cd²⁺, 90-96% rejection of Co²⁺ and 95-99% rejection of Cu²⁺ with permeate flux ∼40Lm^-2h^-1 at applied pressure 0.5MPa. The improved heavy metal ions rejection efficacy of the modified NF membranes is attributed to the development of positive surface charge as well as lowering of surface pore size compared to that of unmodified poly(PIP) TFC NF membrane.

Membranes Based on Cellulose Nanofibers and Activated Carbon for Removal of Escherichia coli Bacteria from Water

Cellulosic nanomaterials are potential candidates in different areas, especially in water treatment. In the current work, palm fruit stalks cellulose nanofibers (CNF), TEMPO-oxidized CNF (OCNF), and activated carbon (AC) were used to make thin film membranes for removal of E. coli bacteria from water. Two types of layered membranes were produced: a single layer setup of crosslinked CNF and a two-layer setup of AC/OCNF (bottom) and crosslinked CNF (up) on hardened filter paper. The prepared membranes were evaluated regarding their microstructure and layers thickness using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Water flux and rejection of E. coli bacteria was tested using dead end stirred cells at 1 MPa pressure. Thickness of the cosslinked CNF layer in both types of membranes was about 0.75 micron. The results showed that exchanging water by isopropyl alcohol before drying increased porosity of membranes, and thus resulted in increasing pure water flux and flux of bacteria suspension. The two-layer AC/OCNF/CNF membrane had much higher water flux than the single layer CNF due to higher porosity seen on the surface of the former. Both types of membranes showed high capability of removing E. coli bacteria (rejection ~96–99%) with slightly higher efficiency for the AC/OCNF/CNF membrane than CNF membrane. AC/OCNF/CNF membrane also showed resistance against growth of E. coli and S. aureus bacteria on the upper CNF surface while the single layer CNF membrane did not show resistance against growth of the aforementioned bacteria.

Cellulose-based virus-retentive filters: a review

Viral filtration is a critical step in the purification of biologics and in the monitoring of microbiological water quality. Viral filters are also essential protection elements against airborne viral particles. The present review first focuses on cellulose-based filter media currently used for size-exclusion and/or adsorptive filtration of viruses from biopharmaceutical and environmental water samples. Data from spiking studies quantifying the viral filtration performance of cellulosic filters are detailed, i.e., first, the virus reduction capacity of regenerated cellulose hollow fiber filters in the manufacturing process of blood products and, second, the efficiency of virus recovery/concentration from water samples by the viradel (virus adsorption-elution) method using charge modified, electropositive cellulosic filters or conventional electronegative cellulose ester microfilters. Viral analysis of field water samples by the viradel technique is also surveyed. This review then describes cellulose-based filter media used in individual protection equipment against airborne viral pathogens, presenting innovative filtration media with virucidal properties. Some pros and cons of cellulosic viral filters and perspectives for cellulose-based materials in viral filtration are underlined in the review.

Drinking water treatment using a submerged internal-circulation membrane coagulation reactor coupled with permanganate oxidation

A submerged internal circulating membrane coagulation reactor (MCR) was used to treat surface water to produce drinking water. Polyaluminum chloride (PACl) was used as coagulant, and a hydrophilic polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) submerged hollow fiber microfiltration membrane was employed. The influences of trans-membrane pressure (TMP), zeta potential (ZP) of the suspended particles in raw water, and KMnO₄ dosing on water flux and the removal of turbidity and organic matter were systematically investigated. Continuous bench-scale experiments showed that the permeate quality of the MCR satisfied the requirement for a centralized water supply, according to the Standards for Drinking Water Quality of China (GB 5749-2006), as evaluated by turbidity (<1 NTU) and total organic carbon (TOC) (<5mg/L) measurements. Besides water flux, the removal of turbidity, TOC and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the raw water also increased with increasing TMP in the range of 0.01-0.05MPa. High ZP induced by PACl, such as 5-9mV, led to an increase in the number of fine and total particles in the MCR, and consequently caused serious membrane fouling and high permeate turbidity. However, the removal of TOC and DOC increased with increasing ZP. A slightly positive ZP, such as 1-2mV, corresponding to charge neutralization coagulation, was favorable for membrane fouling control. Moreover, dosing with KMnO₄ could further improve the removal of turbidity and DOC, thereby mitigating membrane fouling. The results are helpful for the application of the MCR in producing drinking water and also beneficial to the research and application of other coagulation and membrane separation hybrid processes.

Nanocellulose-Based Materials for Water Purification

Nanocellulose is a renewable material that combines a high surface area with high strength, chemical inertness, and versatile surface chemistry. In this review, we will briefly describe how nanocellulose is produced, and present-in particular, how nanocellulose and its surface modified versions affects the adsorption behavior of important water pollutants, e.g., heavy metal species, dyes, microbes, and organic molecules. The processing of nanocellulose-based membranes and filters for water purification will be described in detail, and the uptake capacity, selectivity, and removal efficiency will also be discussed. The processing and performance of nanocellulose-based membranes, which combine a high removal efficiency with anti-fouling properties, will be highlighted.

The roles of bacteriophages in membrane-based water and wastewater treatment processes: A review

Membrane filtration processes have been widely applied in water and wastewater treatment for many decades. Concerns related to membrane treatment effectiveness, membrane lifespan, and membrane fouling control have been paid great attention. To achieve sustainable membrane operation with regards to low energy and maintenance cost, monitoring membrane performance and applying suitable membrane control strategies are required. As the most abundant species in water and wastewater, bacteriophages have shown great potential to be employed in membrane processes as (1) indicators to assess membrane performance considering their similar properties to human pathogenic waterborne viruses; (2) surrogate particles to monitor membrane integrity due to their nano-sized nature; and (3) biological agents to alleviate membrane fouling because of their antimicrobial properties. This study aims to provide a comprehensive review on the roles of bacteriophages in membrane-based water and wastewater treatment processes, with focuses on their uses for membrane performance examination, membrane integrity monitoring, and membrane biofouling control. The advantages, limitations, and influencing factors for bacteriophage-based applications are reported. Finally, the challenges and prospects of bacteriophage-based applications in membrane processes for water treatment are highlighted.

A Novel Polyvinylidene Fluoride Tree-Like Nanofiber Membrane for Microfiltration

A novel polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) tree-like nanofiber membrane (PVDF-TLNM) was fabricated by adding tetrabutylammonium chloride (TBAC) into a PVDF spinning solution via one-step electrospinning. The structure of the prepared membranes was characterized by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and pore size analysis, and the hydrophilic property and microfiltration performance were also evaluated. The results showed that the tree-like nanofiber was composed of trunk fibers and branch fibers with diameters of 100-500 nm and 5-100 nm, respectively. The pore size of PVDF-TLNM (0.36 μm) was smaller than that of a common nanofiber membrane (3.52 μm), and the hydrophilic properties of the membranes were improved significantly. The PVDF-TLNM with a thickness of 30 ± 2 μm showed a satisfactory retention ratio of 99.9% against 0.3 μm polystyrene (PS) particles and a high pure water flux of 2.88 × 10⁴ L·m-2·h-1 under the pressure of 25 psi. This study highlights the potential benefits of this novel PVDF tree-like nanofiber membrane in the membrane field, which can achieve high flux rates at low pressure.

Cellulose nanomaterials in water treatment technologies

Cellulose nanomaterials are naturally occurring with unique structural, mechanical and optical properties. While the paper and packaging, automotive, personal care, construction, and textiles industries have recognized cellulose nanomaterials' potential, we suggest cellulose nanomaterials have great untapped potential in water treatment technologies. In this review, we gather evidence of cellulose nanomaterials' beneficial role in environmental remediation and membranes for water filtration, including their high surface area-to-volume ratio, low environmental impact, high strength, functionalizability, and sustainability. We make direct comparison between cellulose nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in terms of physical and chemical properties, production costs, use and disposal in order to show the potential of cellulose nanomaterials as a sustainable replacement for CNTs in water treatment technologies. Finally, we comment on the need for improved communication and collaboration across the myriad industries invested in cellulose nanomaterials production and development to achieve an efficient means to commercialization.

Removal of heavy metals from water through armchair carbon and boron nitride nanotubes: a computer simulation study

Number of heavy metals permeation from the (7,7) CNT and the (7,7) BNNT in the applied voltages.

Evaluation of novel, cationic electrospun microfibrous membranes as adsorbents in bacteria removal

Cationic, methacrylate-based electrospun microfibrous membranes have been evaluated as adsorbents for the removal of Gram-negative bacteria namely Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Advenella species from synthetic aqueous media and urban wastewater.