Adherence rate to beclomethasone dipropionate and the level of asthma control

Adherence to asthma treatments: 'we know, we intend, we advocate'

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To highlight the state of the art and the current outlook on the adherence to treatment in asthma, starting from the 'Manifesto on Adherence to asthma treatment in respiratory allergy' endorsed by the World Allergy Organization, Allergic Rhinitis and Its Impact on Asthma and Global Allergy, Asthma European Network, and Interasma.

RECENT FINDINGS

Adherence to the pharmacological treatments of asthma is known to be low: about 50% of those who had been prescribed long-term treatment are nonadherent, at least part of the time. Nonadherence is associated with lack of asthma control, poor health outcomes, and increased costs. The reasons for suboptimal adherence are multifaceted and may be related to the patients, the treatment and asthma features, the physician-patient relationship, and the healthcare resources and facilities.

SUMMARY

Taking into account the multidimensional nature of adherence, no single intervention or strategy is per se able to enhance it, but all players involved in the process (government authorities, patient organizations, scientific societies, stakeholders, and others) are called to work together to develop a combined action plan based on the patient's complexity.

Long-term adherence to inhaled corticosteroids in children with asthma: Observational study

INTRODUCTION

Non-adherence to daily controller medication in childhood asthma is strongly dependent on potentially modifiable factors such as parental illness perceptions and medication beliefs. The extent to which adherence in children can be improved by addressing modifiable determinants of non-adherence has not been studied to date, however. We assessed long-term adherence and its determinants in children with asthma enrolled in a comprehensive asthma care program employing shared decision making with parents.

METHODS

Observational study in 135 children 2-12 years of age with asthma attending a hospital-based outpatient clinic. One-year adherence to inhaled corticosteroids was measured by electronic devices. Parental illness perceptions and medication beliefs, and asthma control were assessed by validated questionnaires.

RESULTS

Median (interquartile range) adherence was 84% (70-92%). 55 children (41%) did not achieve the pre-defined level of good adherence (≥80%) and this was associated with poorer asthma control. Parental perceived medication necessity was high, with a median (interquartile range) BMQ necessity score of 17 (16-20). Parents' replies to the five key questions on the core issues of the program showed high concordance of their illness perceptions and medication beliefs with the medical model of asthma and its treatment. Differences in these perceptions between adherent and non-adherent families were small and non-significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Poor adherence may persist in children despite a high level of concordance between medical team and parents on illness perceptions and medication beliefs, even in the absence of socio-economic barriers to good adherence. Achieving good adherence in all children is a complex task, requiring interventions not covered in current guidelines of managing asthma in children.

Special considerations--asthma in children

BACKGROUND

Asthma is among the most common chronic diseases of childhood. Management of pediatric asthma requires an understanding of the issues that uniquely effect children. This review provides the reader with the current state and future directions of pediatric asthma.

METHODS

Review of the pediatric asthma literature was undertaken with emphasis on randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews.

RESULTS

The prevalence of pediatric asthma remains elevated and is increasingly being appreciated in select global regions. Effective treatment in any setting begins with a focused medical history that queries key asthma features that inform both diagnostic and monitoring strategies. A thorough medical history may yield comorbid upper airway disorders and allergic triggers that could potentially exacerbate airway inflammation. Pre-bronchodilator and post-bronchodilator lung function testing is a preferable diagnostic strategy to quantitatively assess obstructive pulmonary disease among children capable of performing the testing maneuvers. Pediatric asthmatics who continue to have poor disease control require monitoring of medication adherence and drug delivery techniques, because both are often linked with disease outcomes. Therapeutic strategies in children are notably distinct from adults due to the possible effects of inhaled corticosteroids on reduced bone mineral density and growth. Adolescents may also require more time to address the psychosocial complexities that may complicate the required daily usage of asthma medicines.

CONCLUSION

Asthmatic children are distinct from their adult counterparts due to limitations inherent in the pediatric age group. A unified and evidence-based approach to pediatric asthma may improve clinical outcomes.

Non-adherence in children with asthma reviewed: The need for improvement of asthma care and medical education

Adherence to daily inhaled corticosteroid therapy is a key determinant of asthma control. Therefore, improving adherence to inhaled corticosteroids is the most effective method through which healthcare providers can help children with uncontrolled asthma. However, identifying non-adherent patients is difficult, and electronic monitoring is the only reliable method to assess adherence. (Non-)adherence is a complex behavioural process influenced by many interacting factors. Intentional barriers to adherence are common; driven by illness perceptions and medication beliefs, patients and parents deliberately choose not to follow the doctor's recommendations. Common non-intentional barriers are related to family routines, child-raising issues, and to social issues such as poverty. Effective interventions improving adherence are complex, because they take intentional and non-intentional barriers to adherence into account. There is evidence that comprehensive, guideline-based asthma self-management programmes can be successful, with excellent adherence and good asthma control. Patient-centred care focused on healthcare provider-patient/parent collaboration is the key factor determining the success of guided self-management programmes. Such care should focus on shared decision-making as this has been shown to improve adherence and healthcare outcomes. Current asthma care falls short because many physicians fail to adhere to asthma guidelines in their diagnostic approach and therapeutic prescriptions, and because of the lack of application of patient-centred health care. Increased awareness of the importance of patient-centred communication and increased training in patient-centred communication skills of undergraduates and experienced attending physicians are needed to improve adherence to daily controller therapy and asthma control in children with asthma.

Monitoring asthma in children

The goal of asthma treatment is to obtain clinical control and reduce future risks to the patient. To reach this goal in children with asthma, ongoing monitoring is essential. While all components of asthma, such as symptoms, lung function, bronchial hyperresponsiveness and inflammation, may exist in various combinations in different individuals, to date there is limited evidence on how to integrate these for optimal monitoring of children with asthma. The aims of this ERS Task Force were to describe the current practise and give an overview of the best available evidence on how to monitor children with asthma. 22 clinical and research experts reviewed the literature. A modified Delphi method and four Task Force meetings were used to reach a consensus. This statement summarises the literature on monitoring children with asthma. Available tools for monitoring children with asthma, such as clinical tools, lung function, bronchial responsiveness and inflammatory markers, are described as are the ways in which they may be used in children with asthma. Management-related issues, comorbidities and environmental factors are summarised. Despite considerable interest in monitoring asthma in children, for many aspects of monitoring asthma in children there is a substantial lack of evidence.

Longitudinal associations between asthma control, medication adherence, and quality of life among adolescents: results from a cross-lagged analysis

PURPOSE

It is not completely clear whether and how medication adherence, asthma control, and quality of life (QOL) predict each other over time. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to examine the longitudinal associations between asthma control, medication adherence, and quality of life among adolescents.

METHODS

In this 3-wave longitudinal study, adolescents (N = 139, Mean age = 11.8) completed questionnaires about their medication adherence (Medication Adherence Report Scale for Asthma), asthma control (Asthma Control Questionnaire), and QOL (Adolescent Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire) during home visits in the spring/summer of 2011, 2012, and 2013. Cross-lagged analyses examined temporal interrelations between the three variables over the course of 3 years.

RESULTS

Higher QOL at baseline predicted increased medication adherence at follow-up (T2), but did not predict changes in asthma control over time. Medication adherence and asthma control did not predict changes in QOL over time. There were no associations between asthma control and medication adherence over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions could focus on increasing QOL to increase medication adherence in adolescents with asthma.

The effect of an electronic monitoring device with audiovisual reminder function on adherence to inhaled corticosteroids and school attendance in children with asthma: a randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Suboptimum adherence to preventive asthma treatment is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality, yet adherence often remains poor. We aimed to investigate whether use of an inhaler with audiovisual reminders leads to improved adherence and asthma outcomes in school-aged children who presented to the emergency department with an asthma exacerbation.

METHODS

We did a randomised controlled trial in patients aged 6-15 years who attended the regional emergency department in Auckland, New Zealand with an asthma exacerbation and were on regular inhaled corticosteroids. Using a simple, unrestricted block randomisation with block sizes of 200, we randomly assigned patients to receive an electronic monitoring device for use with their preventer inhaler with the audiovisual reminder functions either enabled to support adherence to inhaled corticosteroids (intervention group) or disabled (control group). Participants were followed up every 2 months for 6 months. The primary outcomes were adherence to preventive inhaled corticosteroids and number of days absent from school for any reason. Asthma control was assessed as a secondary outcome. All analyses were done in the intention-to-treat population. This trial is registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, number ACTRN12613001353785.

FINDINGS

The study took place between May 10, 2010, and Feb 26, 2012. We randomly assigned 220 patients, 110 to the intervention group and 110 to the control group. Median percentage adherence was 84% (10th percentile 54%, 90th percentile 96%) in the intervention group, compared with 30% (8%, 68%) in the control group (p<0·0001). The proportion of days absent from school for any reason was 1·9% (10th percentile 0·0%, 90th percentile 7·9%) in the intervention group and 1·7% (0·0%, 8·6%) in the control group. The change in asthma morbidity score from baseline to 6 months was significantly greater in the intervention group than in the control group (p=0·008), with a reduction of 2·0 points from a mean baseline score of 9·3 (SD 2·2) to 7·3 (2·1) in the intervention group, compared with a reduction of 1·2 points from a baseline of 9·2 (2·5) to 8·0 (2·2) in the control group.

INTERPRETATION

Use of an electronic monitoring device with an audiovisual reminder led to significant improvements in adherence to inhaled corticosteroids in school-aged children with asthma. This intervention could be beneficial for the improvement of asthma control in patients for whom poor asthma control is related to poor adherence.

FUNDING

Health Research Council of New Zealand and Cure Kids.

Adherence in childhood asthma: the elephant in the room

Adherence to inhaled steroids is suboptimal in many children with asthma and can lead to poor disease control. Many previous studies in paediatric populations have used subjective and inaccurate adherence measurements, reducing their validity. Adherence studies now often use objective electronic monitoring, which can give us an accurate indication of the extent of non-adherence in children with asthma. A review of the studies using electronic adherence monitoring shows that half of them report mean adherence rates of 50% or below, and the majority report rates below 75%. Reasons for non-adherence are both intentional and non-intentional, incorporating illness perceptions, medication beliefs and practical adherence barriers. Interventions to improve adherence in the paediatric population have had limited success, with the most effective containing both educational and behavioural aspects.

Respiratory tract infections and asthma control in children

INTRODUCTION

Asthma control is considered the major goal of asthma management, while many determinants of control are difficult to modify. We studied the association between respiratory infection episodes (RTIs) of various types and asthma control.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were used from children aged 4-18 years with physician-diagnosed asthma who participated in a web-based electronic portal for children with asthma, allergies or infections. Asthma control was measured using the Childhood Asthma Control Test (C-ACT) or the Asthma Control Test (ACT). Linear regression was used to analyse the association between categories of numbers of various types of RTIs sustained in the preceding 12 months (categorized) and asthma control, adjusted for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Asthma control was assessed in 654 children, and 68.5% were clinically well controlled (ACT ≥ 20). Higher total numbers of RTIs in the last 12 months were strongly associated with a lower level of asthma control (p(trend) < 0.001). Similarly strong statistically significant associations were found for subtypes of RTI: ≥4 vs. 0 otitis episodes: coefficient -1.7 (95% CI -3.3 to -0.2); ≥5 vs.0 colds: coefficient -2.3 (95% CI -3.0 to -1.6); ≥3 vs. 0 bronchitis episodes: coefficient -3.1 (95% CI -4.0 to -2.3), each with p(trend) < 0.05.

CONCLUSION

Higher numbers of reported respiratory tract infections are associated with lower level of asthma control. The different type of respiratory tract infections contribute equally to less controlled asthma.

Comparing the Asthma APGAR system and the Asthma Control Test™ in a multicenter primary care sample

OBJECTIVE

To compare asthma control assessment using the Asthma APGAR system, a tool developed by primary care clinicians, in a multicenter primary care sample with the Asthma Control Test (ACT™)/Childhood Asthma Control Test (CACT™), a tool developed by asthma specialists.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This is a substudy of a multicenter, randomized, controlled pragmatic trial that tests the effectiveness of the Asthma APGAR system in primary care practices. As part of the study, enrolled patients completed both the ACT™/CACT™ and the Asthma APGAR system between March 1, 2011, and December 31, 2011. Kappa and McNemar statistics were used to compare the results of questionnaires.

RESULTS

Of the 468 patients in our sample, 306 (65%) were classified as not controlled by the ACT™/CACT™ or the Asthma APGAR system. The overall agreement was 84.4%, with a kappa value of .68 (substantial agreement) and a McNemar test P value of .35 (suggesting no significant difference in the direction of disagreement). Of those with poor control as defined by the Asthma APGAR system, 23.8% (73) had no controller medications and 76.5% (234) were seldom or sometimes able to avoid identified triggers for their asthma. Of those who stated that they had been prescribed controller medications, 116 of 332 (35%) stated that they did not use the controller medication on a daily basis.

CONCLUSION

The Asthma APGAR system and the ACT™/CACT™ similarly assess asthma control in a multicenter primary care-based sample. The Asthma APGAR system identified an "actionable item" in more than 75% (234) of the individuals with poor asthma control, thus linking an assessment of poor asthma control with a management strategy.

Efficacy and safety of fluticasone furoate/vilanterol compared with fluticasone propionate/salmeterol combination in adult and adolescent patients with persistent asthma: a randomized trial

Background:

The combination of fluticasone furoate (FF), a novel inhaled corticosteroid (ICS), and vilanterol (VI), a long-acting β₂ agonist, is under development as a once-daily treatment of asthma and COPD. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of FF/VI with fluticasone propionate (FP)/salmeterol (SAL) in patients with persistent asthma uncontrolled on a medium dose of ICS.

Methods:

In a randomized, double-blind, double-dummy, parallel group study, 806 patients received FF/VI (100/25 μg, n = 403) once daily in the evening delivered through ELLIPTA (GlaxoSmithKline) dry powder inhaler, or FP/SAL (250/50 μg, n = 403) bid through DISKUS/ACCUHALER (GlaxoSmithKline). The primary efficacy measure was 0- to 24-h serial weighted mean (wm) FEV₁ after 24 weeks of treatment.

Results:

Improvements from baseline in 0- to 24-h wmFEV₁ were observed with both FF/VI (341 mL) and FP/SAL (377 mL); the adjusted mean treatment difference was not statistically significant (−37 mL; 95% CI, −88 to 15, P = 0.162). There were no differences between 0- to 4-h serial wmFEV₁, trough FEV₁, and asthma control and quality-of-life questionnaire scores. There was no difference in reported exacerbations between treatments. Both treatments were well tolerated, with no clinically relevant effect on urinary cortisol excretion or vital signs and no treatment-related serious adverse events.

Conclusions:

The efficacy of once-daily FF/VI was similar to bid FP/SAL in improving lung function in patients with persistent asthma. No safety issues were identified.

Trial registry:

ClinicalTrials.gov; No.: NCT01147848; URL: www.clinicaltrials.gov

Effect of Type D personality on medication adherence in early adolescents with asthma

OBJECTIVE

Medication adherence for daily preventive asthma medication is especially low during adolescence. In the present study, we aimed to test whether Type D personality (both as a category and with its constituent components (negative affectivity: NA and social inhibition: SI) separately and in interaction) predicts medication adherence of early adolescents with asthma.

METHODS

In a prospective study, 188 early adolescents with asthma who were prescribed daily preventive asthma medication completed questionnaires on Type D personality, medication adherence, socio-demographic and clinical information, and depressive symptoms in the Spring/Summer of 2011 (T1) and again 12months later (T2). Multiple regression analyses, controlling for demographic and clinical information and for depressive symptoms, were conducted to test whether Type D personality (either as a categorical or dimensional construct) predicted changes in medication adherence over time.

RESULTS

Adherence was significantly lower at T2 than at T1 and this decrease was predicted by the categorical construct of Type D personality. Analyses of the two separate dimensions NA and SI and their interaction showed that higher scores on NA at T1 predicted more decrease in adherence over time. Neither SI nor the interaction between NA and SI predicted changes in adherence.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study to test the relationship between Type D personality and medication adherence in adolescents. Although categorical Type D personality predicts mediation adherence of adolescent with asthma over time, dimensional analyses suggest that this is due to negative affectivity only, and not to the combination of negative affectivity and social inhibition.

Using communication skills to improve adherence in children with chronic disease: the adherence equation

Nonadherence to maintenance medication is common in paediatric chronic conditions. Despite the common belief that nonadherence is therapy-resistant, and the apparent lack of evidence for successful interventions to improve adherence, there is, in fact, a considerable body of evidence suggesting that adherence can be improved by applying specific communicative consultation skills. These can be summarized as the adherence equation: adherence=follow-up+dialogue+barriers and beliefs+empathy and education => concordance. Close follow-up of children with a chronic condition is needed to establish a therapeutic partnership with the family. Teaching self management skills is not a unidirectional process of providing information, but requires a constructive and collaborative dialogue between the medical team and the family. Identifying barriers to adherence can be achieved in a non-confrontational manner, by showing a genuine interest what the patient's views and preferences are. In particular, parental illness perceptions and medication beliefs should be identified, because they are strong drivers of nonadherence. Through empathic evidence-based education, such perceptions and beliefs can be modified. By applying these strategies, concordance between the child's family and the medical team can be achieved, resulting in optimal adherence to the jointly created treatment plan.

Efficacy and safety of fluticasone furoate 100 μg once-daily in patients with persistent asthma: a 24-week placebo and active-controlled randomised trial

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) improve asthma disease control; once-daily ICS administration may have advantages for patients. Our objective was to assess the efficacy and safety of the novel ICS fluticasone furoate (FF) over 24 weeks versus placebo. This was a 24-week double-blind, double-dummy, placebo- and active-controlled study (NCT01159912) of 343 asthma patients (≥12 years) not controlled by their current ICS. Patients were randomised (1:1:1) to FF100 μg, placebo (both administered once-daily [OD] via ELLIPTA™ dry powder inhaler in the evening) or fluticasone propionate (FP) 250 μg (administered twice-daily (BD) via DISKUS™/ACCUHALER™). Primary endpoint was change from baseline in pre-dose evening forced expiratory volume in 1s (FEV1) at Week 24; change from baseline in % rescue-free 24-h periods was a powered secondary endpoint. Adverse events (AEs) were assessed. FF100 μg OD and FP250 μg BD significantly improved pre-dose evening FEV1 compared with placebo at Week 24 (+146 ml [p = 0.009] and +145 ml [p = 0.011], respectively). Percentage of rescue-free 24-h periods was increased with FF100 μg OD (+14.8%) and FP250 μg BD (+17.9%) compared to placebo (both p < 0.001). On-treatment AEs were reported by 53% (FF100 μg OD), 42% (FP250 μg BD) and 40% (placebo) of patients. On-treatment severe asthma exacerbations were lower with FF100 μg OD (3%) and FP250 μg BD (2%) than placebo (7%). There was significant suppression of urinary cortisol at week 24 with FF100 μg OD (p = 0.030) and FP250 μg BD (p = 0.036) relative to placebo. FF100 μg OD, administered in the evening, achieves significant improvements in lung function and rescue inhaler use over 24 weeks, comparable to FP250 μg BD with similar safety profile.

Non-adherence in difficult asthma and advances in detection

Non-adherence to anti-inflammatory therapies is common in patients referred for specialist assessment at difficult-to-treat asthma services. In the difficult asthma setting, non-adherence to treatment is associated with poor baseline asthma control, increased frequency of exacerbations and asthma-related hospitalizations, as well as increased risk of death. Here, we present a review of the current literature surrounding the prevalence and risks of non-adherence in difficult asthma and we report on current methods of measuring treatment adherence and advances in the detection of non-adherence. We will also explore methods by which non-adherence in difficult asthma can be addressed.

Adherence monitoring and e-health: how clinicians and researchers can use technology to promote inhaler adherence for asthma

In the past decade, rapid technological developments have advanced electronic monitoring devices (EMD) for asthma inhalers beyond simple recording of actuations to providing adherence promotion features and detailed information about patterns of medication use. This article describes currently available EMDs, discusses their utility and limitations in assessing adherence, and describes the potential for EMD-based adherence promotion interventions in clinical settings. To date, the main use of EMDs has been in clinical research. In selected populations, simple EMD-based adherence interventions, delivered either through clinician-to-patient feedback about medication use or by direct-to-patient reminders for missed doses, can significantly improve adherence. Further work is now needed to determine the impact of EMDs on clinical outcomes and their cost-effectiveness and feasibility for different clinical settings, including in disadvantaged populations. If this evidence can be provided, then the use of EMDs could expand into the management of asthma in populations with high health care costs, eg, severe asthma. In the future, medication monitoring could help distinguish poor treatment response from poor adherence, guide prescribing decisions, and prompt providers to discuss barriers to adherence; electronic health records may provide the gateway for integrating medication-use monitoring into digital chronic care management.

The clinician's guide on monitoring children with asthma

Based on a review of the evidence on the usefulness of monitoring disease outcome parameters in childhood asthma and the author's 20-yr clinical experience in managing childhood asthma, this article provides the clinician with up-to-date recommendations on how to monitor childhood asthma in everyday clinical practice. Monitoring should be focused on patient-centered outcomes, such as exacerbations and impact on sports and play. Composite asthma control measures, although reasonably validated, do not take exacerbations into account and have a short recall window, limiting their usefulness as a routine monitoring tool in clinical practice. Lung function, airways hyperresponsiveness, exhaled nitric oxide, and inflammatory markers in sputum are surrogate end points, of little if any interest to patients. There is no evidence to support their use as a monitoring tool in clinical practice; office spirometry may be used as additional information. Rather than monitoring surrogate end points, clinicians should focus on showing a genuine interest in the impact of asthma on children's daily lives, and building and maintaining a partnership by monitoring those characteristics of asthma which have the biggest impact on children (exacerbations and limitations in sports and play), and adjusting treatment accordingly.

The difficult-to-treat, therapy-resistant cough: why are current cough treatments not working and what can we do?

Cough can persist despite exhaustive diagnostic and therapeutic effort and has been termed 'idiopathic' or 'unexplained' but perhaps 'difficult to treat' cough is a more appropriate description. In this article the reasons for poor treatment response are discussed. These include a lack of physician fidelity to management guidelines, patient non-adherence and the lack of effective medicines. A number of randomized controlled trials have been undertaken including low dose opiate therapy, the use of a speech pathology intervention, oral antibiotics and antidepressants. The success or otherwise of such interventions will be discussed. A number of approaches to deal with the problem of 'difficult to treat cough' will be considered.

e-Monitoring of Asthma Therapy to Improve Compliance in children using a real-time medication monitoring system (RTMM): the e-MATIC study protocol

BACKGROUND

Many children with asthma do not have sufficient asthma control, which leads to increased healthcare costs and productivity loss of parents. One of the causative factors are adherence problems. Effective interventions improving medication adherence may therefore improve asthma control and reduce costs. A promising solution is sending real time text-messages via the mobile phone network, when a medicine is about to be forgotten. As the effect of real time text-messages in children with asthma is unknown, the primary aim of this study is to determine the effect of a Real Time Medication Monitoring system (RTMM) with text-messages on adherence to inhaled corticosteroids (ICS). The secondary objective is to study the effects of RTMM on asthma control, quality of life and cost-effectiveness of treatment.

METHODS

A multicenter, randomized controlled trial involving 220 children (4-11 years) using ICS for asthma. All children receive an RTMM-device for one year, which registers time and date of ICS doses. Children in the intervention group also receive tailored text-messages, sent only when a dose is at risk of omission. Primary outcome measure is the proportion of ICS dosages taken within the individually predefined time-interval. Secondary outcome measures include asthma control (monthly Asthma Control Tests), asthma exacerbations, healthcare use (collected from hospital records, patient reports and pharmacy record data), and disease-specific quality of life (PAQLQ questionnaire). Parental and children's acceptance of RTMM is evaluated with online focus groups and patient questionnaires. An economic evaluation is performed adopting a societal perspective, including relevant healthcare costs and parental productivity loss. Furthermore, a decision-analytic model is developed in which different levels of adherence are associated with clinical and financial outcomes. Also, sensitivity analyses are carried out on different price levels for RTMM.

DISCUSSION

If RTMM with tailored text-message reminders proves to be effective, this technique can be used in daily practice, which would support children with suboptimal adherence in their asthma (self)management and in achieving better asthma control and better quality of life.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Netherlands Trial Register NTR2583.