GABA receptors and benzodiazepine binding sites modulate hippocampal acetylcholine release in vivo

GABA(A) receptor antagonists enhance cortical acetylcholine release induced by 5-HT(3) receptor blockade in freely moving rats

ACh release from the rat frontal cortex was increased by both local, 0.1-1 microM, and systemic, 0.1-10 microg/kg, administration of the 5-HT(3) receptor antagonist ondansetron, reaching a maximum peak of 143% over basal values. Bicuculline, 1-10 microM, and flumazenil, 5-10 mg/kg, antagonists at different sites of the GABA(A) receptor, also enhanced ACh release, with maximum effects of 85 and 124% above baseline, respectively. GABA(A) receptor antagonists potentiated the effect induced by ondansetron on ACh release, reaching a peak increase of 238% (with bicuculline) and 259% (with flumazenil) over basal levels. These results suggest an interaction of ondansetron with GABAergic neurons modulating ACh release in the rat frontal cortex in vivo.

Evidence that mnesic states govern normal and disordered memory

Although it is recognized that retrieval may be state-dependent, only recently has a paradigm been identified that allows state-dependence in rats to be demonstrated reliably and at relevant doses of CNS agents. In humans, the effects of scopolamine constitute a valuable model of disordered memory. We used this paradigm to analyze the effects of scopolamine on different memory processes. Rats treated with either saline or 0.01-10 mg/kg doses of scopolamine learned to lever press for milk reward, and were then tested for retrieval while given the same or a different treatment. Saline-to-scopolamine as well as scopolamine-to-saline state changes produced robust failures to retrieve the response. Remarkably, the state produced by 2.5 mg/kg scopolamine, like that produced by saline, produced little intrinsic effect on learning or any other memory process (i.e. when the prevailing state was left unchanged). However, changing the implemented state from one to the other between two different processes, disrupted not only retrieval, but also learning, encoding and retention. We also determined whether the graded state changes produced by 0.01-10 mg/kg doses of scopolamine could mimic the peculiar and poorly understood temporally graded retrograde amnesia that occurs in Alzheimer's disease. In rats that had acquired a complex drug-discrimination task over a 6-month period, scopolamine-induced state changes seemed to produce dose-dependent deficits in the retrieval of recent information while preserving those abilities that had been acquired in the increasingly remote past. Beyond its role in retrieval, the findings implicate state dependence in learning, encoding and retention, and suggest that physiologically defined mnesic states govern each of these. The changes of mnesic state that are likely associated with excessively labile cholinergic neurotransmission may conceivably cause the complex disabilities of Alzheimer's disease.

Application of in vivo microdialysis to the study of cholinergic systems

The application of in vivo microdialysis to the study of acetylcholine (ACh) release has contributed greatly to our understanding of cholinergic brain systems. This article reviews standard experimental procedures for dialysis probe selection and implantation, perfusion parameters, neurochemical detection, and data analysis as they relate to microdialysis assessments of cholinergic function. Particular attention is focused on the unique methodological considerations that arise when in vivo microdialysis is dedicated expressly to the recovery and measurement of ACh as opposed to other neurotransmitters. Limitations of the microdialysis technique are discussed, as well as methodological adaptations that may prove useful in overcoming these limitations. This is followed by an overview of recent studies in which the application of in vivo microdialysis has been used to characterize the basic pharmacology and physiology of cholinergic neurons. Finally, the usefulness of the microdialysis approach for testing hypotheses regarding the cholinergic systems' involvement in cognitive processes is examined. It can be concluded that, in addition to being a versatile and practical method for studying the neurochemistry of cholinergic brain systems, in vivo microdialysis represents a valuable tool in our efforts to better comprehend ACh's underlying role in a variety of behavioral processes.

Increasing acetylcholine levels in the hippocampus or entorhinal cortex reverses the impairing effects of septal GABA receptor activation on spontaneous alternation

Intra-septal infusions of the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonist muscimol impair learning and memory in a variety of tasks. This experiment determined whether hippocampal or entorhinal infusions of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine would reverse such impairing effects on spontaneous alternation performance, a measure of spatial working memory. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were given intra-septal infusions of vehicle or muscimol (1 nmole/0.5 microL) combined with unilateral intra-hippocampal or intra-entorhinal infusions of vehicle or physostigmine (10 microg/microL for the hippocampus; 7.5 microg/microL or 1.875 microg/0.25 microL for the entorhinal cortex). Fifteen minutes later, spontaneous alternation performance was assessed. The results indicated that intra-septal infusions of muscimol significantly decreased percentage-of-alternation scores, whereas intra-hippocampal or intra-entorhinal infusions of physostigmine had no effect. More importantly, intra-hippocampal or intra-entorhinal infusions of physostigmine, at doses that did not influence performance when administered alone, completely reversed the impairing effects of the muscimol infusions. These findings indicate that increasing cholinergic levels in the hippocampus or entorhinal cortex is sufficient to reverse the impairing effects of septal GABA receptor activation and support the hypothesis that the impairing effects of septal GABAergic activity involve cholinergic processes in the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex.

Regional brain activity during shape recognition impaired by a scopolamine challenge to encoding

In the present positron emission tomography (PET) study, we examine the effect of a scopolamine-induced challenge to encoding upon the pattern of regional cerebral blood flow during recognition of a list of abstract visual shapes 3 days after encoding of these shapes. This study was conducted to test hypotheses concerning the fusiform and thalamic contributions to object recognition arising from a previous imaging study of impaired recognition. In that study, we demonstrated that activity in the fusiform cortex and the thalamus during shape recognition was modulated by memory challenges. These memory challenges included, on one hand, impaired storage as a consequence of diazepam administration during encoding, and, on the other hand, impaired retrieval caused by a perceptual challenge. Activation in the fusiform cortex decreased during impaired recognition, irrespective of the type of challenge. In contrast, thalamic activation increased only when the recognition deficit resulted from impaired memory storage. Based on these results, we hypothesized that fusiform activation during recognition reflects the matching of an incoming stimulus with a stored one, whereas thalamic activation reflects retrieval attempts. These hypotheses would receive considerable support if scopolamine, which also impairs memory storage, induced similar modulations of fusiform and thalamic activation. In the present study, we observed that a scopolamine challenge to encoding does indeed modulate the activity in the very same regions that were previously modulated by a diazepam challenge. Hence, a similar memory deficit, although primarily effected through different neurochemical pathways, was paralleled by a similar modulation of activity in the same set of nodes in the shape recognition network. In the fusiform cortex, scopolamine decreased recognition-related activity, as did the sensory challenge of retrieval. Furthermore, covariate analysis demonstrated that the level of fusiform activity linearly correlates with behavioural performance. In the thalamus, activation increased following impaired encoding. This is in accordance with the idea that enhanced thalamic activity reflects increased effort expended in retrieval. In addition, in the intraparietal sulcus, differential activation also increased following impaired memory storage, possibly reflecting enhanced visuospatial attention in an effort to compensate for impaired performance.