The mouse DNA methyltransferase 5'-region. A unique housekeeping gene promoter

Isolation of cDNA clones encoding DNA methyltransferase of sea urchin P. lividus: expression during embryonic development

A full-length cDNA, encoding a DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase (DNA MTase), has been assembled from a series of overlapping cDNA clones isolated from P. lividus sea urchin embryo cDNA libraries. The cDNA contains 103 bp 5'-UTR, 4839 bp open reading frame corresponding to a 1612 amino acids (aa) protein and 2240 bp 3'-UTR including a terminal 18-bp poly(A) tail. Both the cDNA and the encoded protein are the longest so far reported for DNA MTases. The protein shows five distinct and sequential regions of identity with the other animal DNA MTases, with values of identity from zero to 80%. Northern blot analyses reveal a single RNA band of about 7.5 kb in length showing a highly regulated concentration pattern during development with peak value at the four blastomere stage.

Germ-line passage is required for establishment of methylation and expression patterns of imprinted but not of nonimprinted genes

Embryonic stem (ES) cells homozygous for a disruption of the DNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase gene (Dnmt) proliferate normally with their DNA highly demethylated but die upon differentiation. Expression of the wild-type Dnmt cDNA in mutant male ES cells caused an increase in methylation of bulk DNA and of the Xist and Igf2 genes to normal levels, but did not restore the methylation of the imprinted genes H19 and Igf2r. These cells differentiated normally in vitro and contributed substantially to adult chimeras. While the Xist gene was not expressed in the remethylated male ES cells, no restoration of the normal expression profile was seen for H19, Igf2r, or Igf2. This indicates that ES cells can faithfully reestablish normal methylation and expression patterns of nonimprinted genes but lack the ability to restore those of imprinted genes. Full restoration of monoallelic methylation and expression was imposed on H19, Igf2, and Igf2r upon germ-line transmission. These results are consistent with the presence of distinct de novo DNA methyltransferase activities during oogenesis and spermatogenesis, which specifically recognize imprinted genes but are absent in the postimplantation embryo and in ES cells.

The DNA methylation machinery as a target for anticancer therapy

DNA methylation is now recognized as an important mechanism regulating different functions of the genome; gene expression, replication, and cancer. Different factors control the formation and maintenance of DNA methylation patterns. The level of activity of DNA methyltransferase (MeTase) is one factor. Recent data suggest that some oncogenic pathways can induce DNA MeTase expression, that DNA MeTase activity is elevated in cancer, and that inhibition of DNA MeTase can reverse the transformed state. What are the pharmacological consequences of our current understanding of DNA methylation patterns formation? This review will discuss the possibility that DNA MeTase inhibitors can serve as important pharmacological and therapeutic tools in cancer and other genetic diseases.

Regulation of DNA methyltransferase during differentiation of F9 mouse embryonal carcinoma cells

DNA becomes demethylated when F9 mouse embryonal carcinoma cells differentiate into parietal endoderm. DNA methyltransferase (DNA-MTase) activity decreased by 50% during 1 week of differentiation. The level of DNA-MTase mRNA was also diminished accordingly, but the transcription rate of the DNA-MTase gene measured by run-on transcription was essentially unchanged, indicating regulation of DNA-MTase expression at a posttranscriptional step. The decline of DNA-MTase mRNA paralleled that of histone H3 mRNA in accord with the notion that DNA-MTase is preferentially expressed in the S phase of the cell cycle. Since DNA-MTase expression decreases in parallel with DNA synthesis, DNA demethylation during differentiation of F9 cells appears not to be due to limited expression of DNA-MTase. However, the plasmid pAFP7000CAT, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), which is strongly de novo methylated when transfected into F9 stem cells became only weakly methylated after transfection into the F9 parietal endoderm derivative P1, indicating that the activity of DNA-MTase within parietal endoderm cells is more strongly diminished than is apparent from measurements of mRNA amounts and of overall DNA-MTase activity in vitro. The discrepancy between DNA-MTase expression and its actual activity within the cell indicates the existence of a novel mechanism controlling the activity of DNA-MTase.

Ras induces a general DNA demethylation activity in mouse embryonal P19 cells

We demonstrate that expression of v-Ha-ras in mouse embryonal P19 cells results in genome-wide demethylation. Analysis of the pattern of methylation of specific genes reveals that different types of genes are demethylated in the ras transfectants: skeletal muscle specific genes, a gene specifically expressed in the adrenal cortex (c21), ubiquitous genes, and exogenously introduced sequences. Transient transfection and in vitro demethylation assays reveal that the ras transfectants express high levels of a general DNA demethylation activity. This demonstrates that the general DNA demethylation activity in mouse embryonal cells is controlled by an important cellular signal transducer and that DNA demethylase is a potential downstream effector of Ras.

Regulation of DNA methylation by the Ras signaling pathway

We demonstrate that DNA methylation in an adrenocortical tumor cell line, Y1, is controlled by the Ras signaling pathway. Forced expression of a cDNA encoding human GAP120 (hGAP), a down-modulator of Ras activity or delta 9-Jun a transdominant negative mutant of Jun, in Y1 cells reverts the transformed morphology of the cells and results in a reduction in the level of DNA methylation, DNA methyltransferase (MeTase) mRNA, and enzymatic activity. Introduction of an oncogenic Ha-ras into the GAP transfectants results in reversion to a transformed morphology and an increase in the levels of DNA methylation and DNA MeTase activity. Transient transfection CAT assays demonstrate that the expression of DNA MeTase promoter in Y1 cells is regulated by Ras and AP-1. These results establish a molecular link between a major signaling pathway involved in tumorigenesis and DNA methylation.

Expression of antisense to DNA methyltransferase mRNA induces DNA demethylation and inhibits tumorigenesis

Many tumor cell lines overexpress DNA methyltransferase (MeTase) activity; however it is still unclear whether this increase in DNA MeTase activity plays a causal role in naturally occurring tumors and cell lines, whether it is critical for the maintenance of transformed phenotypes, and whether inhibition of the DNA MeTase in tumor cells can reverse transformation. To address these basic questions, we transfected a murine adrenocortical tumor cell line Y1 with a chimeric construct expressing 600 base pairs from the 5' of the DNA MeTase cDNA in the antisense orientation. The antisense transfectants show DNA demethylation, distinct morphological alterations, are inhibited in their ability to grow in an anchorage-independent manner, and exhibit decreased tumorigenicity in syngeneic mice. Ex vivo, cells expressing the antisense construct show increased serum requirements, decreased rate of growth, and induction of an apoptotic death program upon serum deprivation. 5-Azadeoxycytidine-treated cells exhibit a similar dose-dependent reversal of the transformed phenotype. These results support the hypothesis that the DNA MeTase is actively involved in oncogenic transformation.

The 3'-untranslated region of rat lysyl oxidase cDNA

The cloning of the 3'-untranslated region of rat lysyl oxidase cDNA was completed. cDNA clones were generated by reverse transcriptase PCR from neonatal rat aorta smooth muscle cell RNA, and sequenced. Several polyadenylated clones were obtained, providing 2.1 kb of new sequence. Clones were polyadenylated at three different positions. The cDNA clones were verified by PCR-cloning and sequencing of genomic DNA, and by Northern blotting studies. Evidence is presented that the polyadenylation patterns of rat lysyl oxidase mRNAs are similar, but not identical to mouse or human transcripts. Interestingly, the nonconsensus polyadenylations in rat did not occur at the same positions as was found in mouse lysyl oxidase cDNAs. Multiple transcription initiation sites were found by primer extension mapping. Thus, the complex pattern of rat lysyl oxidase mRNAs on Northern blots is principally due to differential use of polyadenylation signals, and to the occurrence of multiple transcription initiation sites. All clones lacked a previously reported 258 bp segment nearly identical to a conserved segment of the 3'-untranslated region of elastin cDNA. We conclude that the elastin-like sequence previously reported in rat lysyl oxidase cDNA is not a species-specific sequence, and most probably resulted from spurious ligation reactions during construction of the cDNA library.

Regulation of the DNA methyltransferase by the Ras-AP-1 signaling pathway

Using deletion analysis and site-specific mutagenesis to map the 5' regulatory region of the DNA methyltransferase (MeTase) gene, we show that a 106-bp sequence (at -1744 to -1650) bearing three AP-1 sites is responsible for induction of DNA MeTase promoter activity. Using transient cotransfection chloramphenicol acetyl-transferase assays in P19 cells, we show that the DNA MeTase promoter is induced by c-Jun or Ha-Ras but not by a dominant negative mutant of Jun, delta 9. The activation of the DNA MeTase promoter by Jun is inhibited in a ligand dependent manner by the glucocorticoid receptor. Stable expression of Ha-Ras in P19 cells results in induction of transcription of the DNA MeTase mRNA as determined by nuclear run-on assays and the steady state levels of DNA MeTase mRNA as determined by an RNase protection assay. These experiments establish a potential molecular link between nodal cellular signaling pathways and the control of expression of the DNA MeTase gene. This provides us with a possible molecular explanation for the hyperactivation of DNA MeTase in many cancer cells and suggests that DNA MeTase is one possible downstream effector of Ras.

DNA methylation properties: consequences for pharmacology

DNA methylation plays an important role in controlling the profile of gene expression of mammalian cells. The hypothesis presented in this article by Moshe Szyf is that DNA methylation patterns are determined by an interplay between the level of DNA methyltransferase and demethylase activities and site-specific signals. The expression of the DNA methyltransferase gene is regulated with the proliferative state of the cell and it is upregulated by cellular oncogenic pathways, resulting in hypermethylation and repression of tumour-suppressing loci. DNA methyltransferase inhibitors would inhibit the excessive activity of DNA methyltransferase in cancer cells and induce the original cellular programme of tumour suppression. They can also be used to turn on alternative programmes of gene expression. Specific DNA methyltransferase antagonists might provide us with therapeutic agents directed at a nodal point of regulation of genetic information.