Conduction and Reactivity in Heterogeneous-Molecular Catalysis: New Insights in Water Oxidation Catalysis by Phosphate Cobalt Oxide Films

In situ characterization of cofacial Co(IV) centers in Co4O4 cubane: Modeling the high-valent active site in oxygen-evolving catalysts

The Co₄O₄ cubane is a representative structural model of oxidic cobalt oxygen-evolving catalysts (Co-OECs). The Co-OECs are active when residing at two oxidation levels above an all-Co(III) resting state. This doubly oxidized Co(IV)₂ state may be captured in a Co(III)₂(IV)₂ cubane. We demonstrate that the Co(III)₂(IV)₂ cubane may be electrochemically generated and the electronic properties of this unique high-valent state may be probed by in situ spectroscopy. Intervalence charge-transfer (IVCT) bands in the near-IR are observed for the Co(III)₂(IV)₂ cubane, and spectroscopic analysis together with electrochemical kinetics measurements reveal a larger reorganization energy and a smaller electron transfer rate constant for the doubly versus singly oxidized cubane. Spectroelectrochemical X-ray absorption data further reveal systematic spectral changes with successive oxidations from the cubane resting state. Electronic structure calculations correlated to experimental data suggest that this state is best represented as a localized, antiferromagnetically coupled Co(IV)₂ dimer. The exchange coupling in the cofacial Co(IV)₂ site allows for parallels to be drawn between the electronic structure of the Co₄O₄ cubane model system and the high-valent active site of the Co-OEC, with specific emphasis on the manifestation of a doubly oxidized Co(IV)₂ center on O-O bond formation.

How Do Pseudocapacitors Store Energy? Theoretical Analysis and Experimental Illustration

Batteries and electrochemical double layer charging capacitors are two classical means of storing electrical energy. These two types of charge storage can be unambiguously distinguished from one another by the shape and scan-rate dependence of their cyclic voltammetric (CV) current-potential responses. The former shows peak-shaped current-potential responses, proportional to the scan rate v or to v^1/2, whereas the latter displays a quasi-rectangular response proportional to the scan rate. On the contrary, the notion of pseudocapacitance, popularized in the 1980s and 1990s for metal oxide systems, has been used to describe a charge storage process that is faradaic in nature yet displays capacitive CV signatures. It has been speculated that a quasi-rectangular CV response resembling that of a truly capacitive response arises from a series of faradaic redox couples with a distribution of potentials, yet this idea has never been justified theoretically. We address this problem by first showing theoretically that this distribution-of-potentials approach is closely equivalent to the more physically meaningful consideration of concentration-dependent activity coefficients resulting from interactions between reactants. The result of the ensuing analysis is that, in either case, the CV responses never yield a quasi-rectangular response ∝ ν, identical to that of double layer charging. Instead, broadened peak-shaped responses are obtained. It follows that whenever a quasi-rectangular CV response proportional to scan rate is observed, such reputed pseudocapacitive behaviors should in fact be ascribed to truly capacitive double layer charging. We compare these results qualitatively with pseudocapacitor reports taken from the literature, including the classic RuO₂ and MnO₂ examples, and we present a quantitative analysis with phosphate cobalt oxide films. Our conclusions do not invalidate the numerous experimental studies carried out under the pseudocapacitance banner but rather provide a correct framework for their interpretation, allowing the dissection and optimization of charging rates on sound bases.

Electrochemical Formation of FeV (O) and Mechanism of Its Reaction with Water During O-O Bond Formation

A detailed electrochemical investigation of a series of iron complexes (biuret-modified tetraamido iron macrocycles Fe^III -bTAML), including the first electrochemical generation of Fe^V (O), and demonstration of their efficacy as homogeneous catalysts for electrochemical water oxidation (WO) in aqueous medium are reported. Spectroelectrochemical and mass spectral studies indicated Fe^V (O) as the active oxidant, formed due to two redox transitions, which were assigned as Fe^IV (O)/Fe^III (OH₂ ) and Fe^V (O)/Fe^IV (O). The spectral properties of both of these high-valent iron oxo species perfectly match those of their chemically synthesised versions, which were thoroughly characterised by several spectroscopic techniques. The O-O bond-formation step occurs by nucleophilic attack of H₂ O on Fe^V (O). A kinetic isotope effect of 3.2 indicates an atom-proton transfer (APT) mechanism. The reaction of chemically synthesised Fe^V (O) in CH₃ CN and water was directly probed by electrochemistry and was found to be first-order in water. The pK_a value of the buffer base plays a critical role in the rate-determining step by increasing the reaction rate several-fold. The electronic effect on redox potential, WO rates, and onset overpotential was studied by employing a series of iron complexes. The catalytic activity was enhanced by the presence of electron-withdrawing groups on the bTAML framework. Changing the substituents from OMe to NO₂ resulted in an eightfold increase in reaction rate, while the overpotential increased threefold.

Mechanistic Investigation of Water Oxidation Catalyzed by Uniform, Assembled MnO Nanoparticles

The development of active water oxidation catalysts is critical to achieve high efficiency in overall water splitting. Recently, sub-10 nm-sized monodispersed partially oxidized manganese oxide nanoparticles were shown to exhibit not only superior catalytic performance for oxygen evolution, but also unique electrokinetics, as compared to their bulk counterparts. In the present work, the water-oxidizing mechanism of partially oxidized MnO nanoparticles was investigated using integrated in situ spectroscopic and electrokinetic analyses. We successfully demonstrated that, in contrast to previously reported manganese (Mn)-based catalysts, Mn(III) species are stably generated on the surface of MnO nanoparticles via a proton-coupled electron transfer pathway. Furthermore, we confirmed as to MnO nanoparticles that the one-electron oxidation step from Mn(II) to Mn(III) is no longer the rate-determining step for water oxidation and that Mn(IV)═O species are generated as reaction intermediates during catalysis.

Aligned cobalt-based Co@CoOx nanostructures for efficient electrocatalytic water oxidation

Aligned cobalt metal nanoparticles were prepared from the pyrolysis of cobalt oxalate nanoplate precursors for efficient electrocatalytic water oxidation.

Enhanced durability of an iridium-bipyridine complex embedded into organosilica nanotubes for water oxidation

Robust bipyridine-incorporated organosilica nanotubes were used to fabricate heterogeneous iridium-bipyridine catalysts, which showed enhanced durability in the water oxidation reaction, benefiting from the stable nanotube structures as well as the isolated active sites.

Frontiers of water oxidation: the quest for true catalysts

Development of advanced analytical techniques is essential for the identification of water oxidation catalysts together with mechanistic studies.

X-ray Spectroscopic Characterization of Co(IV) and Metal-Metal Interactions in Co4O4: Electronic Structure Contributions to the Formation of High-Valent States Relevant to the Oxygen Evolution Reaction

The formation of high-valent states is a key factor in making highly active transition-metal-based catalysts of the oxygen evolution reaction (OER). These high oxidation states will be strongly influenced by the local geometric and electronic structures of the metal ion, which are difficult to study due to spectroscopically active and complex backgrounds, short lifetimes, and limited concentrations. Here, we use a wide range of complementary X-ray spectroscopies coupled to DFT calculations to study Co(III)4O4 cubanes and their first oxidized derivatives, which provide insight into the high-valent Co(IV) centers responsible for the activity of molecular and heterogeneous OER catalysts. The combination of X-ray absorption and 1s3p resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (Kβ RIXS) allows Co(IV) to be isolated and studied against a spectroscopically active Co(III) background. Co K- and L-edge X-ray absorption data allow for a detailed characterization of the 3d-manifold of effectively localized Co(IV) centers and provide a direct handle on the t2g-based redox-active molecular orbital. Kβ RIXS is also shown to provide a powerful probe of Co(IV), and specific spectral features are sensitive to the degree of oxo-mediated metal-metal coupling across Co4O4. Guided by the data, calculations show that electron-hole delocalization can actually oppose Co(IV) formation. Computational extension of Co4O4 to CoM3O4 structures (M = redox-inactive metal) defines electronic structure contributions to Co(IV) formation. Redox activity is shown to be linearly related to covalency, and M(III) oxo inductive effects on Co(IV) oxo bonding can tune the covalency of high-valent sites over a large range and thereby tune E(0) over hundreds of millivolts. Additionally, redox-inactive metal substitution can also switch the ground state and modify metal-metal and antibonding interactions across the cluster.

Enhanced photoelectrochemical water splitting efficiency of hematite electrodes with aqueous metal ions as in situ homogenous surface passivation agents

Interactions between aqueous metal ions with hematite electrodes can in situ passivate surface states and thus enhance PEC efficiency.

Electrocatalytic water oxidation by a molecular cobalt complex through a high valent cobalt oxo intermediate

Biuret-modified tetraamidomacrocyclic cobalt complex [Co^III-bTAML]⁻ is shown to catalyze electrochemical water oxidation at basic pH leading to the formation of O₂.