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Gosselin T, Le Guisquet AM, Brizard B, Hommet C, Minier F, Belzung C. Fluoxetine induces paradoxical effects in C57BL6/J mice: comparison with BALB/c mice. Behav Pharmacol 2018; 28:466-476. [PMID: 28609327 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The C57BL6/J mouse is the most commonly used strain in genetic investigations and behavioural tests. However, only a few studies have used C57BL6/J mice to assess the effects of antidepressant compounds. We carried out a study to compare the behavioural effects of fluoxetine (FLX) in a model of depression in two mice strains: C57BL6/J and BALB/c. We used an 8-week unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) protocol during which FLX was administered (15 mg/kg, oral) from the third week to the end of the protocol. We found that UCMS induced degradation of the coat state in the two strains. Moreover, as expected, we observed that FLX elicited antidepressant-like effects in the BALB/c mice by reducing the coat state deterioration and the latency of grooming in splash test. However, in the C57BL6/J mice, it did not induce this action, but instead triggered an opposite effect: an increased sniffing latency in the novelty suppression of feeding test. We conclude that FLX exerts a paradoxical effect in the C57Bl6/J strain. This observation is consistent with some clinical features of hyper-reactivity to FLX observed in humans. Therefore, the UCMS protocol used in C57Bl6/J mice could be a good model to study the mechanisms of the paradoxical effects caused by selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Gosselin
- INSERM U930, Team 'Affective disorders', University of François Rabelais, Tours, France
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Jantzie LL, Oppong AY, Conteh FS, Yellowhair TR, Kim J, Fink G, Wolin AR, Northington FJ, Robinson S. Repetitive Neonatal Erythropoietin and Melatonin Combinatorial Treatment Provides Sustained Repair of Functional Deficits in a Rat Model of Cerebral Palsy. Front Neurol 2018; 9:233. [PMID: 29706928 PMCID: PMC5908903 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebral palsy (CP) is the leading cause of motor impairment for children worldwide and results from perinatal brain injury (PBI). To test novel therapeutics to mitigate deficits from PBI, we developed a rat model of extreme preterm birth (<28 weeks of gestation) that mimics dual intrauterine injury from placental underperfusion and chorioamnionitis. We hypothesized that a sustained postnatal treatment regimen that combines the endogenous neuroreparative agents erythropoietin (EPO) and melatonin (MLT) would mitigate molecular, sensorimotor, and cognitive abnormalities in adults rats following prenatal injury. On embryonic day 18 (E18), a laparotomy was performed in pregnant Sprague–Dawley rats. Uterine artery occlusion was performed for 60 min to induce placental insufficiency via transient systemic hypoxia-ischemia, followed by intra-amniotic injections of lipopolysaccharide, and laparotomy closure. On postnatal day 1 (P1), approximately equivalent to 30 weeks of gestation, injured rats were randomized to an extended EPO + MLT treatment regimen, or vehicle (sterile saline) from P1 to P10. Behavioral assays were performed along an extended developmental time course (n = 6–29). Open field testing shows injured rats exhibit hypermobility and disinhibition and that combined neonatal EPO + MLT treatment repairs disinhibition in injured rats, while EPO alone does not. Furthermore, EPO + MLT normalizes hindlimb deficits, including reduced paw area and paw pressure at peak stance, and elevated percent shared stance after prenatal injury. Injured rats had fewer social interactions than shams, and EPO + MLT normalized social drive. Touchscreen operant chamber testing of visual discrimination and reversal shows that EPO + MLT at least partially normalizes theses complex cognitive tasks. Together, these data indicate EPO + MLT can potentially repair multiple sensorimotor, cognitive, and behavioral realms following PBI, using highly translatable and sophisticated developmental testing platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren L Jantzie
- Department of Pediatrics, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States.,Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Akosua Y Oppong
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Fatu S Conteh
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Tracylyn R Yellowhair
- Department of Pediatrics, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Joshua Kim
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Gabrielle Fink
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Adam R Wolin
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Frances J Northington
- Neonatology, Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Shenandoah Robinson
- Pediatric Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Phillips BU, Dewan S, Nilsson SRO, Robbins TW, Heath CJ, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ, Alsiö J. Selective effects of 5-HT2C receptor modulation on performance of a novel valence-probe visual discrimination task and probabilistic reversal learning in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235:2101-2111. [PMID: 29682701 PMCID: PMC6015605 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4907-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Dysregulation of the serotonin (5-HT) system is a pathophysiological component in major depressive disorder (MDD), a condition closely associated with abnormal emotional responsivity to positive and negative feedback. However, the precise mechanism through which 5-HT tone biases feedback responsivity remains unclear. 5-HT2C receptors (5-HT2CRs) are closely linked with aspects of depressive symptomatology, including abnormalities in reinforcement processes and response to stress. Thus, we aimed to determine the impact of 5-HT2CR function on response to feedback in biased reinforcement learning. METHODS We used two touchscreen assays designed to assess the impact of positive and negative feedback on probabilistic reinforcement in mice, including a novel valence-probe visual discrimination (VPVD) and a probabilistic reversal learning procedure (PRL). Systemic administration of a 5-HT2CR agonist and antagonist resulted in selective changes in the balance of feedback sensitivity bias on these tasks. RESULTS Specifically, on VPVD, SB 242084, the 5-HT2CR antagonist, impaired acquisition of a discrimination dependent on appropriate integration of positive and negative feedback. On PRL, SB 242084 at 1 mg/kg resulted in changes in behaviour consistent with reduced sensitivity to positive feedback. In contrast, WAY 163909, the 5-HT2CR agonist, resulted in changes associated with increased sensitivity to positive feedback and decreased sensitivity to negative feedback. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that 5-HT2CRs tightly regulate feedback sensitivity bias in mice with consequent effects on learning and cognitive flexibility and specify a framework for the influence of 5-HT2CRs on sensitivity to reinforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U. Phillips
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Sigma Dewan
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Simon R. O. Nilsson
- Rodent Behavioral Core, Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Neuroscience Institute, New York University Medical Center, New York, NY 10016 USA
| | - Trevor W. Robbins
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
| | - Christopher J. Heath
- School of Life, Health and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA UK
| | - Lisa M. Saksida
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Robarts Research Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON Canada ,The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON Canada
| | - Timothy J. Bussey
- Molecular Medicine Research Group, Robarts Research Institute and Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, Western University, London, ON Canada ,The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON Canada
| | - Johan Alsiö
- Department of Psychology and Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EB UK
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Frameworking memory and serotonergic markers. Rev Neurosci 2017; 28:455-497. [DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2016-0079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:The evidence for neural markers and memory is continuously being revised, and as evidence continues to accumulate, herein, we frame earlier and new evidence. Hence, in this work, the aim is to provide an appropriate conceptual framework of serotonergic markers associated with neural activity and memory. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]) has multiple pharmacological tools, well-characterized downstream signaling in mammals’ species, and established 5-HT neural markers showing new insights about memory functions and dysfunctions, including receptors (5-HT1A/1B/1D, 5-HT2A/2B/2C, and 5-HT3-7), transporter (serotonin transporter [SERT]) and volume transmission present in brain areas involved in memory. Bidirectional influence occurs between 5-HT markers and memory/amnesia. A growing number of researchers report that memory, amnesia, or forgetting modifies neural markers. Diverse approaches support the translatability of using neural markers and cerebral functions/dysfunctions, including memory formation and amnesia. At least, 5-HT1A, 5-HT4, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7receptors and SERT seem to be useful neural markers and therapeutic targets. Hence, several mechanisms cooperate to achieve synaptic plasticity or memory, including changes in the expression of neurotransmitter receptors and transporters.
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Houwing DJ, Buwalda B, van der Zee EA, de Boer SF, Olivier JDA. The Serotonin Transporter and Early Life Stress: Translational Perspectives. Front Cell Neurosci 2017; 11:117. [PMID: 28491024 PMCID: PMC5405142 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The interaction between the serotonin transporter (SERT) linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) and adverse early life stressing (ELS) events is associated with enhanced stress susceptibility and risk to develop mental disorders like major depression, anxiety, and aggressiveness. In particular, human short allele carriers are at increased risk. This 5-HTTLPR polymorphism is absent in the rodent SERT gene, but heterozygous SERT knockout rodents (SERT+/−) show several similarities to the human S-allele carrier, therefore creating an animal model of the human situation. Many rodent studies investigated ELS interactions in SERT knockout rodents combined with ELS. However, underlying neuromolecular mechanisms of the (mal)adaptive responses to adversity displayed by SERT rodents remain to be elucidated. Here, we provide a comprehensive review including studies describing mechanisms underlying SERT variation × ELS interactions in rodents. Alterations at the level of translation and transcription but also epigenetic alterations considerably contribute to underlying mechanisms of SERT variation × ELS interactions. In particular, SERT+/− rodents exposed to adverse early rearing environment may be of high translational and predictive value to the more stress sensitive human short-allele carrier, considering the similarity in neurochemical alterations. Therefore, SERT+/− rodents are highly relevant in research that aims to unravel the complex psychopathology of mental disorders. So far, most studies fail to show solid evidence for increased vulnerability to develop affective-like behavior after ELS in SERT+/− rodents. Several reasons may underlie these failures, e.g., (1) stressors used might not be optimal or severe enough to induce maladaptations, (2) effects in females are not sufficiently studied, and (3) few studies include both behavioral manifestations and molecular correlates of ELS-induced effects in SERT+/− rodents. Of course, one should not exclude the (although unlikely) possibility of SERT+/− rodents not being sensitive to ELS. In conclusion, future studies addressing ELS-induced effects in the SERT+/− rodents should extensively study both long-term behavioral and (epi)genetic aspects in both sexes. Finally, further research is warranted using more severe stressors in animal models. From there on, we should be able to draw solid conclusions whether the SERT+/− exposed to ELS is a suitable translational animal model for studying 5-HTTLPR polymorphism and stress interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle J Houwing
- Unit Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Bauke Buwalda
- Unit Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Eddy A van der Zee
- Unit Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Sietse F de Boer
- Unit Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
| | - Jocelien D A Olivier
- Unit Behavioral Neuroscience, Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
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Matias S, Lottem E, Dugué GP, Mainen ZF. Activity patterns of serotonin neurons underlying cognitive flexibility. eLife 2017; 6:e20552. [PMID: 28322190 PMCID: PMC5360447 DOI: 10.7554/elife.20552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Serotonin is implicated in mood and affective disorders. However, growing evidence suggests that a core endogenous role is to promote flexible adaptation to changes in the causal structure of the environment, through behavioral inhibition and enhanced plasticity. We used long-term photometric recordings in mice to study a population of dorsal raphe serotonin neurons, whose activity we could link to normal reversal learning using pharmacogenetics. We found that these neurons are activated by both positive and negative prediction errors, and thus report signals similar to those proposed to promote learning in conditions of uncertainty. Furthermore, by comparing the cue responses of serotonin and dopamine neurons, we found differences in learning rates that could explain the importance of serotonin in inhibiting perseverative responding. Our findings show how the activity patterns of serotonin neurons support a role in cognitive flexibility, and suggest a revised model of dopamine-serotonin opponency with potential clinical implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Matias
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
- MIT-Portugal Program, Porto Salvo, Portugal
| | - Eran Lottem
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Guillaume P Dugué
- Institut de Biologie de l’Ecole Normale Supérieure, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, UMR8197, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Paris, France
| | - Zachary F Mainen
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
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Marquardt K, Sigdel R, Brigman JL. Touch-screen visual reversal learning is mediated by value encoding and signal propagation in the orbitofrontal cortex. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2017; 139:179-188. [PMID: 28111339 PMCID: PMC5372695 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2017.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 12/23/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Behavioral inflexibility is a common symptom of neuropsychiatric disorders which can have a major detrimental impact on quality of life. While the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) has been strongly implicated in behavioral flexibility in rodents across paradigms, our understanding of how the OFC mediates these behaviors is rapidly adapting. Here we examined neuronal activity during reversal learning by coupling in vivo electrophysiological recording with a mouse touch-screen learning paradigm to further elucidate the role of the OFC in updating reward value. Single unit and oscillatory activity was recorded during well-learned discrimination and 3 distinct phases of reversal (early, chance and well-learned). During touch-screen performance, OFC neuronal firing tracked rewarded responses following a previous rewarded choice when behavior was well learned, but shifted to primarily track repeated errors following a previous error in early reversal. Spike activity tracked rewarded choices independent of previous trial outcome during chance reversal, and returned to the initial pattern of reward response at criterion. Analysis of spike coupling to oscillatory local field potentials showed that less frequently occurring behaviors had significantly fewer neurons locked to any oscillatory frequency. Together, these data support the role of the OFC in tracking the value of individual choices to inform future responses and suggests that oscillatory signaling may be involved in propagating responses to increase or decrease the likelihood that action is taken in the future. They further support the use of touch-screen paradigms in preclinical studies to more closely model clinical approaches to measuring behavioral flexibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Marquardt
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Rahul Sigdel
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Jonathan L Brigman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, United States; New Mexico Alcohol Research Center, UNM Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States.
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Behavioral and Physiological Consequences of Adult Brain 5-HT Depletion in Mice. J Neurosci 2017; 37:1672-1674. [PMID: 28202785 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3574-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Revised: 01/08/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Subchronic anesthetic ketamine injections in rats impair choice reversal learning, but have no effect on reinforcer devaluation. Behav Pharmacol 2017; 28:294-302. [PMID: 28118210 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous exposure to a variety of drugs of abuse has been shown to cause long-term impairments in reversal learning and reinforcer devaluation tasks. However, there is mixed evidence in the literature for a long-term effect of ketamine exposure on reversal learning and the long-term effect of ketamine exposure on devaluation is not known. We determined whether repeated injections of an anesthetic dose of ketamine would lead to impairments in choice reversal learning after discrimination learning or impairments in reinforcer devaluation. In two experiments, rats received three injections once-daily of ketamine (100 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) or saline and then began behavioral training 19 days later so that the key reversal learning and devaluation tests would occur about 1 month after the final ketamine injection. This ketamine exposure regimen did not impair learning in our discrimination task, but led to an increase in perseverative errors in reversal learning. However, the same ketamine exposure regimen (or injections of a lower 50 mg/kg dose) had no effect on behavior in the devaluation task. The behavioral patterns observed suggest possible neural mechanisms for the effects of ketamine, but future neurobiological investigations will be needed to isolate these mechanisms.
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Nilsson SR, Fejgin K, Gastambide F, Vogt MA, Kent BA, Nielsen V, Nielsen J, Gass P, Robbins TW, Saksida LM, Stensbøl TB, Tricklebank MD, Didriksen M, Bussey TJ. Assessing the Cognitive Translational Potential of a Mouse Model of the 22q11.2 Microdeletion Syndrome. Cereb Cortex 2016; 26:3991-4003. [PMID: 27507786 PMCID: PMC5028007 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 07/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
A chromosomal microdeletion at the 22q11.2 locus is associated with extensive cognitive impairments, schizophrenia and other psychopathology in humans. Previous reports indicate that mouse models of the 22q11.2 microdeletion syndrome (22q11.2DS) may model the genetic basis of cognitive deficits relevant for neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. To assess the models usefulness for drug discovery, a novel mouse (Df(h22q11)/+) was assessed in an extensive battery of cognitive assays by partners within the NEWMEDS collaboration (Innovative Medicines Initiative Grant Agreement No. 115008). This battery included classic and touchscreen-based paradigms with recognized sensitivity and multiple attempts at reproducing previously published findings in 22q11.2DS mouse models. This work represents one of the most comprehensive reports of cognitive functioning in a transgenic animal model. In accordance with previous reports, there were non-significant trends or marginal impairment in some tasks. However, the Df(h22q11)/+ mouse did not show comprehensive deficits; no robust impairment was observed following more than 17 experiments and 14 behavioral paradigms. Thus - within the current protocols - the 22q11.2DS mouse model fails to mimic the cognitive alterations observed in human 22q11.2 deletion carriers. We suggest that the 22q11.2DS model may induce liability for cognitive dysfunction with additional "hits" being required for phenotypic expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Ro Nilsson
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Department of Psychology, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA
| | - Kim Fejgin
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Synaptic Transmission, Neuroscience Research DK, Ottiliavej 9, Valby 2500, Denmark
| | - Francois Gastambide
- In Vivo Pharmacology, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly & Co. Ltd, Erl Wood Manor, Sunninghill Road, Windlesham GU20 6PH, UK
| | - Miriam A Vogt
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim Faculty, University of Heidelberg, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Brianne A Kent
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Vibeke Nielsen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Synaptic Transmission, Neuroscience Research DK, Ottiliavej 9, Valby 2500, Denmark
| | - Jacob Nielsen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Synaptic Transmission, Neuroscience Research DK, Ottiliavej 9, Valby 2500, Denmark
| | - Peter Gass
- Central Institute of Mental Health, Mannheim Faculty, University of Heidelberg, J5, 68159 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Lisa M Saksida
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
| | - Tine B Stensbøl
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Synaptic Transmission, Neuroscience Research DK, Ottiliavej 9, Valby 2500, Denmark
| | - Mark D Tricklebank
- In Vivo Pharmacology, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly & Co. Ltd, Erl Wood Manor, Sunninghill Road, Windlesham GU20 6PH, UK
| | - Michael Didriksen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Synaptic Transmission, Neuroscience Research DK, Ottiliavej 9, Valby 2500, Denmark
| | - Timothy J Bussey
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, UK
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Enge S, Fleischhauer M, Gärtner A, Reif A, Lesch KP, Kliegel M, Strobel A. Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (Val66Met) and Serotonin Transporter (5-HTTLPR) Polymorphisms Modulate Plasticity in Inhibitory Control Performance Over Time but Independent of Inhibitory Control Training. Front Hum Neurosci 2016; 10:370. [PMID: 27524961 PMCID: PMC4966207 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Several studies reported training-induced improvements in executive function tasks and also observed transfer to untrained tasks. However, the results are mixed and there is a large interindividual variability within and across studies. Given that training-related performance changes would require modification, growth or differentiation at the cellular and synaptic level in the brain, research on critical moderators of brain plasticity potentially explaining such changes is needed. In the present study, a pre-post-follow-up design (N = 122) and a 3-weeks training of two response inhibition tasks (Go/NoGo and Stop-Signal) was employed and genetic variation (Val66Met) in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoting differentiation and activity-dependent synaptic plasticity was examined. Because Serotonin (5-HT) signaling and the interplay of BDNF and 5-HT are known to critically mediate brain plasticity, genetic variation in the 5-HTT gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) was also addressed. The overall results show that the kind of training (i.e., adaptive vs. non-adaptive) did not evoke genotype-dependent differences. However, in the Go/NoGo task, better inhibition performance (lower commission errors) were observed for BDNF Val/Val genotype carriers compared to Met-allele ones supporting similar findings from other cognitive tasks. Additionally, a gene-gene interaction suggests a more impulsive response pattern (faster responses accompanied by higher commission error rates) in homozygous l-allele carriers relative to those with the s-allele of 5-HTTLPR. This, however, is true only in the presence of the Met-allele of BDNF, while the Val/Val genotype seems to compensate for such non-adaptive responding. Intriguingly, similar results were obtained for the Stop-Signal task. Here, differences emerged at post-testing, while no differences were observed at T1. In sum, although no genotype-dependent differences between the relevant training groups emerged suggesting no changes in the trained inhibition function, the observed genotype-dependent performance changes from pre- to post measurement may reflect rapid learning or memory effects linked to BDNF and 5-HTTLPR. In line with ample evidence on BDNF and BDNF-5-HT system interactions to induce (rapid) plasticity especially in hippocampal regions and in response to environmental demands, the findings may reflect genotype-dependent differences in the acquisition and consolidation of task-relevant information, thereby facilitating a more adaptive responding to task-specific requirements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sören Enge
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
| | - Monika Fleischhauer
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
- Department of Psychology, PFH Private Hochschule GöttingenGöttingen, Germany
| | - Anne Gärtner
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
| | - Andreas Reif
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital FrankfurtFrankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Klaus-Peter Lesch
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Laboratory of Translational Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University of WuerzburgWuerzburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Kliegel
- Department of Psychology, University of GenevaGeneva, Switzerland
| | - Alexander Strobel
- Department of Psychology, Technische Universität DresdenDresden, Germany
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Sex differences, learning flexibility, and striatal dopamine D1 and D2 following adolescent drug exposure in rats. Behav Brain Res 2016; 308:104-14. [PMID: 27091300 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Corticostriatal circuitry supports flexible reward learning and emotional behavior from the critical neurodevelopmental stage of adolescence through adulthood. It is still poorly understood how prescription drug exposure in adolescence may impact these outcomes in the long-term. We studied adolescent methylphenidate (MPH) and fluoxetine (FLX) exposure in rats and their impact on learning and emotion in adulthood. In Experiment 1, male and female rats were administered MPH, FLX, or saline (SAL), and compared with methamphetamine (mAMPH) treatment beginning in postnatal day (PND) 37. The rats were then tested on discrimination and reversal learning in adulthood. In Experiment 2, animals were administered MPH or SAL also beginning in PND 37 and later tested in adulthood for anxiety levels. In Experiment 3, we analyzed striatal dopamine D1 and D2 receptor expression in adulthood following either extensive learning (after Experiment 1) or more brief emotional measures (after Experiment 2). We found sex differences in discrimination learning and attenuated reversal learning after MPH and only sex differences in adulthood anxiety. In learners, there was enhanced striatal D1, but not D2, after either adolescent MPH or mAMPH. Lastly, also in learners, there was a sex x treatment group interaction for D2, but not D1, driven by the MPH-pretreated females, who expressed significantly higher D2 levels compared to SAL. These results show enduring effects of adolescent MPH on reversal learning in rats. Developmental psychostimulant exposure may interact with learning to enhance D1 expression in adulthood, and affect D2 expression in a sex-dependent manner.
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Izquierdo A, Brigman JL, Radke AK, Rudebeck PH, Holmes A. The neural basis of reversal learning: An updated perspective. Neuroscience 2016; 345:12-26. [PMID: 26979052 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.03.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 316] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Reversal learning paradigms are among the most widely used tests of cognitive flexibility and have been used as assays, across species, for altered cognitive processes in a host of neuropsychiatric conditions. Based on recent studies in humans, non-human primates, and rodents, the notion that reversal learning tasks primarily measure response inhibition, has been revised. In this review, we describe how cognitive flexibility is measured by reversal learning and discuss new definitions of the construct validity of the task that are serving as a heuristic to guide future research in this field. We also provide an update on the available evidence implicating certain cortical and subcortical brain regions in the mediation of reversal learning, and an overview of the principal neurotransmitter systems involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Izquierdo
- Department of Psychology, The Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - J L Brigman
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - A K Radke
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - P H Rudebeck
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10014, USA
| | - A Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Abstract
Previous studies have established a role for N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) containing the GluN2B subunit in efficient learning behavior on a variety of tasks. Recent findings have suggested that NMDAR on GABAergic interneurons may underlie the modulation of striatal function necessary to balance efficient action with cortical excitatory input. Here we investigated how loss of GluN2B-containing NMDAR on GABAergic interneurons altered corticostriatal-mediated associative learning. Mutant mice (floxed-GluN2B×Ppp1r2-Cre) were generated to produce loss of GluN2B on forebrain interneurons and phenotyped on a touchscreen-based pairwise visual learning paradigm. We found that the mutants showed normal performance during Pavlovian and instrumental pretraining, but were significantly impaired on a discrimination learning task. Detailed analysis of the microstructure of discrimination performance revealed reduced win→stay behavior in the mutants. These results further support the role of NMDAR, and GluN2B in particular, on modulation of striatal function necessary for efficient choice behavior and suggest that NMDAR on interneurons may play a critical role in associative learning.
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Hvoslef-Eide M, Nilsson SRO, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ. Cognitive Translation Using the Rodent Touchscreen Testing Approach. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2016; 28:423-447. [PMID: 27305921 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2015_5007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The development of novel therapeutic avenues for the treatment of cognitive deficits in psychiatric and neurodegenerative disease is of high importance, yet progress in this field has been slow. One reason for this lack of success may lie in discrepancies between how cognitive functions are assessed in experimental animals and humans. In an attempt to bridge this translational gap, the rodent touchscreen testing platform is suggested as a translational tool. Specific examples of successful cross-species translation are discussed focusing on paired associate learning (PAL), the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT), the rodent continuous performance task (rCPT) and reversal learning. With ongoing research assessing the neurocognitive validity of tasks, the touchscreen approach is likely to become increasingly prevalent in translational cognitive research.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Hvoslef-Eide
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
| | - S R O Nilsson
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - L M Saksida
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - T J Bussey
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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Grados M, Prazak M, Saif A, Halls A. A review of animal models of obsessive-compulsive disorder: a focus on developmental, immune, endocrine and behavioral models. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2015; 11:27-43. [PMID: 26558411 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2016.1103225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric condition characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive behaviors (compulsions). Several models of OCD exist, many which employ behaviors such as over-grooming or hoarding as correlates for compulsive behaviors - often using a response to serotonergic agents as evidence for their validity. Recent discoveries in the genetics of OCD and the identification of aberrancies of glutamatergic, hormonal, and immune pathways in the OCD phenotype highlight a need to review existing of animal models of OCD. The focus of attention to these pathways may lead to possible new targets for drug discovery. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors describe frameworks for animal models in OCD conceptualized as either biological (e.g., developmental, genetic, and endocrine pathways), or behavioral (e.g., repetitive grooming, and stereotypies). In addition, the authors give special attention to the emerging role of glutamate in OCD. EXPERT OPINION While many animal models for OCD demonstrate pathologic repetitive behavior phenotypes, which are relieved by serotoninergic agents, animal models based on reversal learning, perseverative responding, and neurodevelopmental mechanisms represent robust new paradigms. Glutamatergic influences in these new animal models suggest that drug discovery using neuroprotective approaches may represent a new stage for pharmacologic developments in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Grados
- a Department of Psychiatry , Johns Hopkins University , 1800 Orleans St. - 12th floor, Baltimore , MD 21287 , USA
| | - Michael Prazak
- b Department of Medicine , Dow University of Health Sciences , Karachi , Pakistan
| | - Aneeqa Saif
- c Department of Psychology Grand Forks , University of North Dakota , ND , USA
| | - Andrew Halls
- a Department of Psychiatry , Johns Hopkins University , 1800 Orleans St. - 12th floor, Baltimore , MD 21287 , USA
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Baker PM, Oh SE, Kidder KS, Mizumori SJY. Ongoing behavioral state information signaled in the lateral habenula guides choice flexibility in freely moving rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2015; 9:295. [PMID: 26582981 PMCID: PMC4631824 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The lateral habenula (LHb) plays a role in a wide variety of behaviors ranging from maternal care, to sleep, to various forms of cognition. One prominent theory with ample supporting evidence is that the LHb serves to relay basal ganglia and limbic signals about negative outcomes to midbrain monoaminergic systems. This makes it likely that the LHb is critically involved in behavioral flexibility as all of these systems have been shown to contribute when flexible behavior is required. Behavioral flexibility is commonly examined across species and is impaired in various neuropsychiatric conditions including autism, depression, addiction, and schizophrenia; conditions in which the LHb is thought to play a role. Therefore, a thorough examination of the role of the LHb in behavioral flexibility serves multiple functions including understanding possible connections with neuropsychiatric illnesses and additional insight into its role in cognition in general. Here, we assess the LHb’s role in behavioral flexibility through comparisons of the roles its afferent and efferent pathways are known to play. Additionally, we provide new evidence supporting the LHb contributions to behavioral flexibility through organization of specific goal directed actions under cognitively demanding conditions. Specifically, in the first experiment, a majority of neurons recorded from the LHb were found to correlate with velocity on a spatial navigation task and did not change significantly when reward outcomes were manipulated. Additionally, measurements of local field potential (LFP) in the theta band revealed significant changes in power relative to velocity and reward location. In a second set of experiments, inactivation of the LHb with the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists baclofen and muscimol led to an impairment in a spatial/response based repeated probabilistic reversal learning task. Control experiments revealed that this impairment was likely due to the demands of repeated switching behaviors as rats were unimpaired on initial discrimination acquisition or retention of probabilistic learning. Taken together, these novel findings compliment other work discussed supporting a role for the LHb in action selection when cognitive or emotional demands are increased. Finally, we discuss future mechanisms by which a superior understanding of the LHb can be obtained through additional examination of behavioral flexibility tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip M Baker
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sujean E Oh
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kevan S Kidder
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington Seattle, WA, USA
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Alsiö J, Nilsson SRO, Gastambide F, Wang RAH, Dam SA, Mar AC, Tricklebank M, Robbins TW. The role of 5-HT2C receptors in touchscreen visual reversal learning in the rat: a cross-site study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2015; 232:4017-31. [PMID: 26007324 PMCID: PMC4600472 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-015-3963-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Reversal learning requires associative learning and executive functioning to suppress non-adaptive responding. Reversal-learning deficits are observed in e.g. schizophrenia and obsessive-compulsive disorder and implicate neural circuitry including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC). Serotonergic function has been strongly linked to visual reversal learning in humans and experimental animals but less is known about which receptor subtypes are involved. OBJECTIVES The objectives of the study were to test the effects of systemic and intra-OFC 5-HT2C-receptor antagonism on visual reversal learning in rats and assess the psychological mechanisms underlying these effects within novel touchscreen paradigms. METHODS In experiments 1-2, we used a novel 3-stimulus task to investigate the effects of 5-HT2C-receptor antagonism through SB 242084 (0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg i.p.) cross-site. Experiment 3 assessed the effects of SB 242084 in 2-choice reversal learning. In experiment 4, we validated a novel touchscreen serial visual reversal task suitable for neuropharmacological microinfusions by baclofen-/muscimol-induced OFC inactivation. In experiment 5, we tested the effect of intra-OFC SB 242084 (1.0 or 3.0 μg/side) on performance in this task. RESULTS In experiments 1-3, SB 242084 reduced early errors but increased late errors to criterion. In experiment 5, intra-OFC SB 242084 reduced early errors without increasing late errors in a reversal paradigm validated as OFC dependent (experiment 4). CONCLUSION Intra-OFC 5-HT2C-receptor antagonism decreases perseveration in novel touchscreen reversal-learning paradigms for the rat. Systemic 5-HT2C-receptor antagonism additionally impairs late learning-a robust effect observed cross-site and potentially linked to impulsivity. These conclusions are discussed in terms of neural mechanisms underlying reversal learning and their relevance to psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Alsiö
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Functional Neurobiology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, SE-75124, Sweden.
| | - S R O Nilsson
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - F Gastambide
- Lilly Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Eli Lilly & Co. Ltd., Erl Wood Manor, Windlesham, GU20 6PH, UK
| | - R A H Wang
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - S A Dam
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - A C Mar
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
| | - M Tricklebank
- Lilly Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, Eli Lilly & Co. Ltd., Erl Wood Manor, Windlesham, GU20 6PH, UK
| | - T W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK
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Snyder KP, Hill-Smith TE, Lucki I, Valentino RJ. Corticotropin-releasing Factor in the Rat Dorsal Raphe Nucleus Promotes Different Forms of Behavioral Flexibility Depending on Social Stress History. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:2517-25. [PMID: 25865931 PMCID: PMC4569959 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2015.98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Revised: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 03/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The stress-related neuropeptide, corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) regulates the dorsal raphe nucleus-serotonin (DRN-5-HT) system during stress and this may underlie affective and cognitive dysfunctions that characterize stress-related psychiatric disorders. CRF acts on both CRF1 and CRF2 receptor subtypes in the DRN that exert opposing inhibitory and excitatory effects on DRN-5-HT neuronal activity and 5-HT forebrain release, respectively. The current study first assessed the cognitive effects of intra-DRN microinfusion of CRF or the selective CRF2 agonist, urocortin II in stress-naive rats on performance of an operant strategy set-shifting task that is mediated by the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). CRF (30 ng) facilitated strategy set-shifting performance, whereas higher doses of CRF and urocortin II that would interact with CRF2 were without effect, consistent with a CRF1-mediated action. This dose decreased 5-HT extracellular levels in the mPFC, further supporting a role for CRF1. The effects of CRF were then assessed in rats exposed to repeated social stress using the resident-intruder model. Repeated social stress shifted the CRF effect from facilitation of strategy set shifting to facilitation of reversal learning and this was most prominent in a subpopulation of rats that resist defeat. Notably, in this subpopulation of rats 5-HT neuronal responses to CRF have been demonstrated to shift from CRF1-mediated inhibition to CRF2-mediated excitation. Because 5-HT facilitates reversal learning, the present results suggest that stress-induced changes in the cellular effects of CRF in the DRN translate to changes in cognitive effects of CRF. Together, the results underscore the potential for stress history to shift cognitive processing through changes in CRF neurotransmission in the DRN and the association of this effect with coping strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin P Snyder
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | | | - Irwin Lucki
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Department of Pharmacology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Rita J Valentino
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA,Department of Anesthesiology, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, 402D Abramson Pediatric Research Center, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA, Tel: +1 215 590 0650, Fax: +1 215 590 3364, E-mail:
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Marquardt K, Sigdel R, Caldwell K, Brigman JL. Prenatal ethanol exposure impairs executive function in mice into adulthood. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2015; 38:2962-8. [PMID: 25581651 DOI: 10.1111/acer.12577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 09/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite evidence that prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) can lead to a wide range of impairments in cognitive, social, and emotional behaviors, drinking during pregnancy remains common. Although there is a general understanding that high levels of drinking during pregnancy are unsafe, conflicting evidence regarding the impact of low intake may account for the persistence of this behavior. METHODS To investigate the effects of PAE on learning and executive control, we utilized a voluntary paradigm where pregnant mice had access to a saccharin-sweetened 10% alcohol solution for 4 hours, during the dark cycle, throughout gestation. Male and female offspring were tested as adults on a touch-screen discrimination and reversal task mediated by corticostriatal circuits. RESULTS Consistent with previous findings, PAE did not lead to gross morphological, motor, or sensory alterations in offspring. Both PAE and saccharin control female mice were slower to acquire the discrimination than males, but PAE did not impair associative learning in either sex. During reversal, PAE led to a specific and significant impairment in the early phase, where cortical control is most required to flexibly alter choice behavior. PAE mice showed a significant increase in maladaptive perseverative responses but showed intact learning of the new association during late reversal. CONCLUSIONS Previously, data from clinical studies have suggested that executive control deficits may underlie cognitive, as well as social, problems seen in adolescents with documented PAE. These data demonstrate that even more moderate alcohol exposure during development can lead to impaired cognitive functioning well into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin Marquardt
- Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, New Mexico
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Luo M, Zhou J, Liu Z. Reward processing by the dorsal raphe nucleus: 5-HT and beyond. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 22:452-60. [PMID: 26286655 PMCID: PMC4561406 DOI: 10.1101/lm.037317.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) represents one of the most sensitive reward sites in the brain. However, the exact relationship between DRN neuronal activity and reward signaling has been elusive. In this review, we will summarize anatomical, pharmacological, optogenetics, and electrophysiological studies on the functions and circuit mechanisms of DRN neurons in reward processing. The DRN is commonly associated with serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT), but this nucleus also contains neurons of the neurotransmitter phenotypes of glutamate, GABA and dopamine. Pharmacological studies indicate that 5-HT might be involved in modulating reward- or punishment-related behaviors. Recent optogenetic stimulations demonstrate that transient activation of DRN neurons produces strong reinforcement signals that are carried out primarily by glutamate. Moreover, activation of DRN 5-HT neurons enhances reward waiting. Electrophysiological recordings reveal that the activity of DRN neurons exhibits diverse behavioral correlates in reward-related tasks. Studies so far thus demonstrate the strong power of DRN neurons in reward signaling and at the same time invite additional efforts to dissect the roles and mechanisms of different DRN neuron types in various processes of reward-related behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minmin Luo
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jingfeng Zhou
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Zhixiang Liu
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing 102206, China
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Abstract
Diverse neuropsychiatric disorders present dysfunctional memory and no effective treatment exits for them; likely as result of the absence of neural markers associated to memory. Neurotransmitter systems and signaling pathways have been implicated in memory and dysfunctional memory; however, their role is poorly understood. Hence, neural markers and cerebral functions and dysfunctions are revised. To our knowledge no previous systematic works have been published addressing these issues. The interactions among behavioral tasks, control groups and molecular changes and/or pharmacological effects are mentioned. Neurotransmitter receptors and signaling pathways, during normal and abnormally functioning memory with an emphasis on the behavioral aspects of memory are revised. With focus on serotonin, since as it is a well characterized neurotransmitter, with multiple pharmacological tools, and well characterized downstream signaling in mammals' species. 5-HT1A, 5-HT4, 5-HT5, 5-HT6, and 5-HT7 receptors as well as SERT (serotonin transporter) seem to be useful neural markers and/or therapeutic targets. Certainly, if the mentioned evidence is replicated, then the translatability from preclinical and clinical studies to neural changes might be confirmed. Hypothesis and theories might provide appropriate limits and perspectives of evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Meneses
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional Mexico City, Mexico
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Markers of serotonergic function in the orbitofrontal cortex and dorsal raphé nucleus predict individual variation in spatial-discrimination serial reversal learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 2015; 40:1619-30. [PMID: 25567428 PMCID: PMC4915245 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2014.335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Dysfunction of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) impairs the ability of individuals to flexibly adapt behavior to changing stimulus-reward (S-R) contingencies. Impaired flexibility also results from interventions that alter serotonin (5-HT) and dopamine (DA) transmission in the OFC and dorsomedial striatum (DMS). However, it is unclear whether similar mechanisms underpin naturally occurring variations in behavioral flexibility. In the present study, we used a spatial-discrimination serial reversal procedure to investigate interindividual variability in behavioral flexibility in rats. We show that flexibility on this task is improved following systemic administration of the 5-HT reuptake inhibitor citalopram and by low doses of the DA reuptake inhibitor GBR12909. Rats in the upper quintile of the distribution of perseverative responses during repeated S-R reversals showed significantly reduced levels of the 5-HT metabolite, 5-hydroxy-indoleacetic acid, in the OFC. Additionally, 5-HT2A receptor binding in the OFC of mid- and high-quintile rats was significantly reduced compared with rats in the low-quintile group. These perturbations were accompanied by an increase in the expression of monoamine oxidase-A (MAO-A) and MAO-B in the lateral OFC and by a decrease in the expression of MAO-A, MAO-B, and tryptophan hydroxylase in the dorsal raphé nucleus of highly perseverative rats. We found no evidence of significant differences in markers of DA and 5-HT function in the DMS or MAO expression in the ventral tegmental area of low- vs high-perseverative rats. These findings indicate that diminished serotonergic tone in the OFC may be an endophenotype that predisposes to behavioral inflexibility and other forms of compulsive behavior.
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Ochoa JG, Stolyarova A, Kaur A, Hart EE, Bugarin A, Izquierdo A. Post-training depletions of basolateral amygdala serotonin fail to disrupt discrimination, retention, or reversal learning. Front Neurosci 2015; 9:155. [PMID: 26029036 PMCID: PMC4426727 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2015.00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In goal-directed pursuits, the basolateral amygdala (BLA) is critical in learning about changes in the value of rewards. BLA-lesioned rats show enhanced reversal learning, a task employed to measure the flexibility of response to changes in reward. Similarly, there is a trend for enhanced discrimination learning, suggesting that BLA may modulate formation of stimulus-reward associations. There is a parallel literature on the importance of serotonin (5HT) in new stimulus-reward and reversal learning. Recent postulations implicate 5HT in learning from punishment. Whereas, dopaminergic involvement is critical in behavioral activation and reinforcement, 5HT may be most critical for aversive processing and behavioral inhibition, complementary cognitive processes. Given these findings, a 5HT-mediated mechanism in BLA may mediate the facilitated learning observed previously. The present study investigated the effects of selective 5HT lesions in BLA using 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) vs. infusions of saline (Sham) on discrimination, retention, and deterministic reversal learning. Rats were required to reach an 85% correct pairwise discrimination and single reversal criterion prior to surgery. Postoperatively, rats were then tested on the (1) retention of the pretreatment discrimination pair, (2) discrimination of a novel pair, and (3) reversal learning performance. We found statistically comparable preoperative learning rates between groups, intact postoperative retention, and unaltered novel discrimination and reversal learning in 5,7-DHT rats. These findings suggest that 5HT in BLA is not required for formation and flexible adjustment of new stimulus-reward associations when the strategy to efficiently solve the task has already been learned. Given the complementary role of orbitofrontal cortex in reward learning and its interconnectivity with BLA, these findings add to the list of dissociable mechanisms for BLA and orbitofrontal cortex in reward learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesus G Ochoa
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alexandra Stolyarova
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Amandeep Kaur
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Evan E Hart
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Amador Bugarin
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Alicia Izquierdo
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA ; Brain Research Institute, University of California, Los Angeles Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Ameliorative effect of gastrodin on 3,3'-iminodipropionitrile-induced memory impairment in rats. Neurosci Lett 2015; 594:40-5. [PMID: 25817367 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.03.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2014] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
3,3'-Iminodipropionitrile (IDPN), one of the nitrile derivatives inducing neurotoxicity, causes the dyskinetic syndrome and cognitive impairment. Gastrodin is widely used to treat neurological disorders and showed to improve cognitive functions. The present study aimed to determine whether treatment with gastrodin can attenuate IDPN-induced impairment of memory consolidation in the passive avoidance (PA) task, and to explore the possible neural mechanisms. Our results showed that intragastric administration of gastrodin (200mg/kg) reversed the IDPN-induced impairment of memory consolidation as indicated by the prolonged retention latency in the PA task. Furthermore, gastrodin reverted IDPN-induced reduction of serotonin (5-HT) and elevation of serotonin turnover ratio. Gastrodin treatment prevented the increase of serotonin transporter (SERT) and the decrease of serotonin 1A (5-HT1A) receptor expression in the hippocampus of IDPN-treated rats. These results suggest that long-term gastrodin treatment could represent a novel pharmacological strategy for IDPN-induced memory impairment, as well that its protective effect is mediated through normalization of the serotoninergic system.
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Does serotonin deficit mediate susceptibility to ADHD? Neurochem Int 2015; 82:52-68. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 01/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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78
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Dual role of serotonin in the acquisition and extinction of reward-driven learning: Involvement of 5-HT1A, 5-HT2A and 5-HT3 receptors. Behav Brain Res 2015; 277:193-203. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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79
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Abstract
Components of human executive function, like rule generation and selection in response to stimuli (attention set-shifting) or overcoming a habit (reversal learning), can be reliably modelled in rodents. The rodent paradigms are based upon tasks that assess cognitive flexibility in clinical populations and have been effective in distinguishing the neurobiological substrates and the underlying neurotransmitter systems relevant to executive function. A review of the literature on the attentional set-shifting task highlights a prominent role for the medial region of the prefrontal cortex in the ability to adapt to a new rule (extradimensional shift) while the orbitofrontal cortex has been associated with the reversal learning component of the task. In other paradigms specifically developed to examine reversal learning in rodents, the orbitofrontal cortex also plays a prominent role. Modulation of dopamine, serotonin, and glutamatergic receptors can disrupt executive function, a feature commonly exploited to develop concepts underlying psychiatric disorders. While these paradigms do have excellent translational construct validity, they have been less effective as predictive preclinical models for cognitive enhancers, especially for cognition in health subjects. Accordingly, a more diverse battery of tasks may be necessary to model normal human executive function in the rodent for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Talpos
- Janssen R&D, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Turnhoutseweg 30, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
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80
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Developmental alterations in anxiety and cognitive behavior in serotonin transporter mutant mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2014; 231:4119-33. [PMID: 24728652 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-014-3554-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2013] [Accepted: 03/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE A promoter variant of the serotonin transporter (SERT) gene is known to affect emotional and cognitive regulation. In particular, the "short" allelic variant is implicated in the etiology of multiple neuropsychiatric disorders. Heterozygous (SERT(+/-)) and homozygous (SERT(-/-)) SERT mutant mice are valuable tools for understanding the mechanisms of altered SERT levels. Although these genetic effects are well investigated in adulthood, the developmental trajectory of altered SERT levels for behavior has not been investigated. OBJECTIVES We assessed anxiety-like and cognitive behaviors in SERT mutant mice in early adolescence and adulthood to examine the developmental consequences of reduced SERT levels. Spine density of pyramidal neurons was also measured in corticolimbic brain regions. RESULTS Adult SERT(-/-) mice exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior, but these differences were not observed in early adolescent SERT(-/-) mice. Conversely, SERT(+/-) and SERT(-/-) mice did display higher spontaneous alternation during early adolescence and adulthood. SERT(+/-) and SERT(-/-) also exhibited greater neuronal spine densities in the orbitofrontal but not the medial prefrontal cortices. Adult SERT(-/-) mice also showed an increased spine density in the basolateral amygdala. CONCLUSIONS Developmental alterations of the serotonergic system caused by genetic inactivation of SERT can have different influences on anxiety-like and cognitive behaviors through early adolescence into adulthood, which may be associated with changes of spine density in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala. The altered maturation of serotonergic systems may lead to specific age-related vulnerabilities to psychopathologies that develop during adolescence.
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81
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Godar SC, Bortolato M, Castelli MP, Casti A, Casu A, Chen K, Ennas MG, Tambaro S, Shih JC. The aggression and behavioral abnormalities associated with monoamine oxidase A deficiency are rescued by acute inhibition of serotonin reuptake. J Psychiatr Res 2014; 56:1-9. [PMID: 24882701 PMCID: PMC4114985 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 03/20/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The termination of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) neurotransmission is regulated by its uptake by the 5-HT transporter (5-HTT), as well as its degradation by monoamine oxidase (MAO)-A. MAO-A deficiency results in a wide set of behavioral alterations, including perseverative behaviors and social deficits. These anomalies are likely related to 5-HTergic homeostatic imbalances; however, the role of 5-HTT in these abnormalities remains unclear. To ascertain the role of 5-HTT in the behavioral anomalies associated to MAO-A deficiency, we tested the behavioral effects of its blocker fluoxetine on perseverative, social and aggressive behaviors in transgenic animals with hypomorphic or null-allele MAO-A mutations. Acute treatment with the 5-HTT blocker fluoxetine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) reduced aggressive behavior in MAO-A knockout (KO) mice and social deficits in hypomorphic MAO-A(Neo) mice. Furthermore, this treatment also reduced perseverative responses (including marble burying and water mist-induced grooming) in both MAO-A mutant genotypes. Both MAO-A mutant lines displayed significant reductions in 5-HTT expression across the prefrontal cortex, amygdala and striatum, as quantified by immunohistochemical detection; however, the down-regulation of 5-HTT in MAO-A(Neo) mice was more pervasive and widespread than in their KO counterparts, possibly indicating a greater ability of the hypomorphic line to enact compensatory mechanisms with respect to 5-HT homeostasis. Collectively, these findings suggest that the behavioral deficits associated with low MAO-A activity may reflect developmental alterations of 5-HTT within 5-HTergic neurons. Furthermore, the translational implications of our results highlight 5-HT reuptake inhibition as an interesting approach for the control of aggressive outbursts in MAO-A deficient individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean C. Godar
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA, Dept. of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy
| | - Marco Bortolato
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA.
| | - M. Paola Castelli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, CA, Italy
| | - Alberto Casti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, CA, Italy
| | - Angelo Casu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, CA, Italy
| | - Kevin Chen
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - M. Grazia Ennas
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, CA, Italy
| | - Simone Tambaro
- Dept. of Cell and Neurobiology; University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jean C. Shih
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA, Dept. of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy
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82
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Cents RAM, Kok R, Tiemeier H, Lucassen N, Székely E, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, Hofman A, Jaddoe VWV, van IJzendoorn MH, Verhulst FC, Lambregtse-van den Berg MP. Variations in maternal 5-HTTLPR affect observed sensitive parenting. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2014; 55:1025-32. [PMID: 24484301 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.12205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is known about the genetic determinants of sensitive parenting. Two earlier studies examined the effect of the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) on sensitive parenting, but reported opposite results. In a large cohort we further examined whether 5-HTTLPR is a predictor of observed maternal sensitivity and whether observed child social fearfulness moderates the effect of 5-HTTLPR on maternal sensitivity. METHODS The population-based cohort consisted of 767 mother-child dyads. Maternal sensitivity was repeatedly observed at the child's age of 14 months, 36 months and 48 months. Sensitivity was coded using the Ainsworth's rating scales for sensitivity and cooperation and the revised Erickson rating scales for Supportive presence and Intrusiveness. Child social fearfulness was observed using the Stranger Approach episode of the Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery at 36 months. RESULTS Repeated measurement analyses showed a consistent main effect of maternal 5-HTTLPR on sensitivity; mothers carrying the S-allele were more sensitive toward their children (p = .005). This effect was not explained by the child's 5-HTTLPR genotype. We found no evidence that child social fearfulness moderated the effect of 5-HTTLPR on sensitivity. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that variations in maternal 5-HTTLPR genotype appear to be involved in the etiology of parenting behavior. The observed effects of this genetic variation are consistent with the notion that parenting may have a genetic component, but large studies are needed to find the specific small molecular effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolieke A M Cents
- The Generation R Study Group, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus MC-University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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83
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Jentsch JD, Ashenhurst JR, Cervantes MC, Groman SM, James AS, Pennington ZT. Dissecting impulsivity and its relationships to drug addictions. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2014; 1327:1-26. [PMID: 24654857 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Addictions are often characterized as forms of impulsive behavior. That said, it is often noted that impulsivity is a multidimensional construct, spanning several psychological domains. This review describes the relationship between varieties of impulsivity and addiction-related behaviors, the nature of the causal relationship between the two, and the underlying neurobiological mechanisms that promote impulsive behaviors. We conclude that the available data strongly support the notion that impulsivity is both a risk factor for, and a consequence of, drug and alcohol consumption. While the evidence indicating that subtypes of impulsive behavior are uniquely informative--either biologically or with respect to their relationships to addictions--is convincing, multiple lines of study link distinct subtypes of impulsivity to low dopamine D2 receptor function and perturbed serotonergic transmission, revealing shared mechanisms between the subtypes. Therefore, a common biological framework involving monoaminergic transmitters in key frontostriatal circuits may link multiple forms of impulsivity to drug self-administration and addiction-related behaviors. Further dissection of these relationships is needed before the next phase of genetic and genomic discovery will be able to reveal the biological sources of the vulnerability for addiction indexed by impulsivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J David Jentsch
- Department of Psychology, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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84
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Ullsperger M, Danielmeier C, Jocham G. Neurophysiology of performance monitoring and adaptive behavior. Physiol Rev 2014; 94:35-79. [PMID: 24382883 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00041.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful goal-directed behavior requires not only correct action selection, planning, and execution but also the ability to flexibly adapt behavior when performance problems occur or the environment changes. A prerequisite for determining the necessity, type, and magnitude of adjustments is to continuously monitor the course and outcome of one's actions. Feedback-control loops correcting deviations from intended states constitute a basic functional principle of adaptation at all levels of the nervous system. Here, we review the neurophysiology of evaluating action course and outcome with respect to their valence, i.e., reward and punishment, and initiating short- and long-term adaptations, learning, and decisions. Based on studies in humans and other mammals, we outline the physiological principles of performance monitoring and subsequent cognitive, motivational, autonomic, and behavioral adaptation and link them to the underlying neuroanatomy, neurochemistry, psychological theories, and computational models. We provide an overview of invasive and noninvasive systemic measures, such as electrophysiological, neuroimaging, and lesion data. We describe how a wide network of brain areas encompassing frontal cortices, basal ganglia, thalamus, and monoaminergic brain stem nuclei detects and evaluates deviations of actual from predicted states indicating changed action costs or outcomes. This information is used to learn and update stimulus and action values, guide action selection, and recruit adaptive mechanisms that compensate errors and optimize goal achievement.
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85
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Strains and stressors: an analysis of touchscreen learning in genetically diverse mouse strains. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87745. [PMID: 24586288 PMCID: PMC3929556 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Touchscreen-based systems are growing in popularity as a tractable, translational approach for studying learning and cognition in rodents. However, while mouse strains are well known to differ in learning across various settings, performance variation between strains in touchscreen learning has not been well described. The selection of appropriate genetic strains and backgrounds is critical to the design of touchscreen-based studies and provides a basis for elucidating genetic factors moderating behavior. Here we provide a quantitative foundation for visual discrimination and reversal learning using touchscreen assays across a total of 35 genotypes. We found significant differences in operant performance and learning, including faster reversal learning in DBA/2J compared to C57BL/6J mice. We then assessed DBA/2J and C57BL/6J for differential sensitivity to an environmental insult by testing for alterations in reversal learning following exposure to repeated swim stress. Stress facilitated reversal learning (selectively during the late stage of reversal) in C57BL/6J, but did not affect learning in DBA/2J. To dissect genetic factors underlying these differences, we phenotyped a family of 27 BXD strains generated by crossing C57BL/6J and DBA/2J. There was marked variation in discrimination, reversal and extinction learning across the BXD strains, suggesting this task may be useful for identifying underlying genetic differences. Moreover, different measures of touchscreen learning were only modestly correlated in the BXD strains, indicating that these processes are comparatively independent at both genetic and phenotypic levels. Finally, we examined the behavioral structure of learning via principal component analysis of the current data, plus an archival dataset, totaling 765 mice. This revealed 5 independent factors suggestive of "reversal learning," "motivation-related late reversal learning," "discrimination learning," "speed to respond," and "motivation during discrimination." Together, these findings provide a valuable reference to inform the choice of strains and genetic backgrounds in future studies using touchscreen-based tasks.
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86
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Spinelli S, Müller T, Friedel M, Sigrist H, Lesch KP, Henkelman M, Rudin M, Seifritz E, Pryce CR. Effects of repeated adolescent stress and serotonin transporter gene partial knockout in mice on behaviors and brain structures relevant to major depression. Front Behav Neurosci 2013; 7:215. [PMID: 24427124 PMCID: PMC3876674 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In humans, exposure to stress during development is associated with structural and functional alterations of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), amygdala (AMY), and hippocampus (HC) and their circuits of connectivity, and with an increased risk for developing major depressive disorder particularly in carriers of the short (s) variant of the serotonin transporter (5-HTT) gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR). Although changes in these regions are found in carriers of the s allele and/or in depressed patients, evidence for a specific genotype × developmental stress effect on brain structure and function is limited. Here, we investigated the effect of repeated stress exposure during adolescence in mice with partial knockout of the 5-HTT gene (HET) vs. wildtype (WT) on early-adulthood behavioral measures and brain structure [using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)] relevant to human major depression. Behaviorally, adolescent stress (AS) increased anxiety and decreased activity and did so to a similar degree in HET and WT. In a probabilistic reversal learning task, HET-AS mice achieved fewer reversals than did HET-No-AS mice. 5-HTT genotype and AS were without effect on corticosterone stress response. In terms of structural brain differences, AS reduced the volume of two long-range white matter tracts, the optic tract (OT) and the cerebral peduncle (CP), in WT mice specifically. In a region-of-interest analysis, AS was associated with increased HC volume and HET genotype with a decreased frontal lobe volume. In conclusion, we found that 5-HTT and AS genotype exerted long-term effects on behavior and development of brain regions relevant to human depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Spinelli
- Preclinical Laboratory for Translational Research into Affective Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Neuroscience Center, University and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tanja Müller
- Preclinical Laboratory for Translational Research into Affective Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Friedel
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children Toronto, Canada
| | - Hannes Sigrist
- Preclinical Laboratory for Translational Research into Affective Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaus-Peter Lesch
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mark Henkelman
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Hospital for Sick Children Toronto, Canada
| | - Markus Rudin
- Neuroscience Center, University and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Institute for Biomedical Engineering, University and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Neuroscience Center, University and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Christopher R Pryce
- Preclinical Laboratory for Translational Research into Affective Disorders, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Neuroscience Center, University and ETH Zurich Zurich, Switzerland ; Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology, University of Zurich Zurich, Switzerland
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87
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Forebrain deletion of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter results in deficits in executive function, metabolic, and RNA splicing abnormalities in the prefrontal cortex. J Neurosci 2013; 33:14908-20. [PMID: 24027290 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1933-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the key brain regions in cognitive processing and executive function is the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which receives cholinergic input from basal forebrain cholinergic neurons. We evaluated the contribution of synaptically released acetylcholine (ACh) to executive function by genetically targeting the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT) in the mouse forebrain. Executive function was assessed using a pairwise visual discrimination paradigm and the 5-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRT). In the pairwise test, VAChT-deficient mice were able to learn, but were impaired in reversal learning, suggesting that these mice present cognitive inflexibility. Interestingly, VAChT-targeted mice took longer to reach criteria in the 5-CSRT. Although their performance was indistinguishable from that of control mice during low attentional demand, increased attentional demand revealed striking deficits in VAChT-deleted mice. Galantamine, a cholinesterase inhibitor used in Alzheimer's disease, significantly improved the performance of control mice, but not of VAChT-deficient mice on the 5-CSRT. In vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy showed altered levels of two neurochemical markers of neuronal function, taurine and lactate, suggesting altered PFC metabolism in VAChT-deficient mice. The PFC of these mice displayed a drastic reduction in the splicing factor heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein A2/B1 (hnRNPA2/B1), whose cholinergic-mediated reduction was previously demonstrated in Alzheimer's disease. Consequently, several key hnRNPA2/B1 target transcripts involved in neuronal function present changes in alternative splicing in VAChT-deficient mice, including pyruvate kinase M, a key enzyme involved in lactate metabolism. We propose that VAChT-targeted mice can be used to model and to dissect the neurochemical basis of executive abnormalities.
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88
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Silverman JL, Gastrell PT, Karras MN, Solomon M, Crawley JN. Cognitive abilities on transitive inference using a novel touchscreen technology for mice. Cereb Cortex 2013; 25:1133-42. [PMID: 24293564 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive abilities are impaired in neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. Preclinical models with strong endophenotypes relevant to cognitive dysfunctions offer a valuable resource for therapeutic development. However, improved assays to test higher order cognition are needed. We employed touchscreen technology to design a complex transitive inference (TI) assay that requires cognitive flexibility and relational learning. C57BL/6J (B6) mice with good cognitive skills and BTBR T+tf/J (BTBR), a model of ASD with cognitive deficits, were evaluated in simple and complex touchscreen assays. Both B6 and BTBR acquired visual discrimination and reversal. BTBR displayed deficits on components of TI, when 4 stimuli pairs were interspersed, which required flexible integrated knowledge. BTBR displayed impairment on the A > E inference, analogous to the A > E deficit in ASD. B6 and BTBR mice both reached criterion on the B > D comparison, unlike the B > D impairment in schizophrenia. These results demonstrate that mice are capable of complex discriminations and higher order tasks using methods and equipment paralleling those used in humans. Our discovery that a mouse model of ASD displays a TI deficit similar to humans with ASD supports the use of the touchscreen technology for complex cognitive tasks in mouse models of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Silverman
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - P T Gastrell
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - M N Karras
- Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
| | - M Solomon
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Imaging Research Center, University of California Davis, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA
| | - J N Crawley
- MIND Institute, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, University of California Davis School of Medicine, Sacramento, CA 95817, USA Laboratory of Behavioral Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD 20892-3730, USA
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89
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Nonkes LJP, van de Vondervoort IIGM, Homberg JR. The attribution of incentive salience to an appetitive conditioned cue is not affected by knockout of the serotonin transporter in rats. Behav Brain Res 2013; 259:268-73. [PMID: 24269496 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 11/07/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the neurobiological basis underlying individual differences in conditioned stimulus (CS) sensitivity is pertinent, given that excessive conditioned responses to CSs is a key feature of anxiety-related disorders and drug addiction. We have previously shown that behaviour of serotonin transporter knockout (5-HTT(-/-)) rats-mimicking the common 5-HTT promoter polymorphism in humans-is strongly driven by Pavlovian CSs. To investigate whether the knockout rats attribute greater incentive salience to CSs, we tested the 5-HTT(-/-) rats and their wild-type counterparts in the sucrose-reinforced sign-versus goal-tracking task. We also assessed whether motivational properties of the unconditioned stimulus (sucrose pellet) are involved in the individual differences under investigation, by testing the animals in a sucrose-reinforced progressive ratio schedule of reinforcement. We found no genotype differences in sign-versus goal-tracking behavior, despite that progressive ratio responding was increased in 5-HTT(-/-) rats. In conclusion, the high CS sensitivity in 5-HTT(-/-) rats cannot be explained by enhanced incentive salience attribution to the CS as measured by the sign- versus goal-tracking paradigm. Rather, 5-HTT(-/-) rats may be more sensitive to the motivational properties of the unconditioned stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lourens J P Nonkes
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands.
| | - Ilse I G M van de Vondervoort
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
| | - Judith R Homberg
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition, and Behaviour, Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands
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90
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Prefrontal single-unit firing associated with deficient extinction in mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2013; 113:69-81. [PMID: 24231425 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2013.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2013] [Revised: 10/23/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The neural circuitry mediating fear extinction has been increasingly well studied and delineated. The rodent infralimbic subregion (IL) of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has been found to promote extinction, whereas the prelimbic cortex (PL) demonstrates an opposing, pro-fear, function. Studies employing in vivo electrophysiological recordings have observed that while increased IL single-unit firing and bursting predicts robust extinction retrieval, increased PL firing can correlate with sustained fear and poor extinction. These relationships between single-unit firing and extinction do not hold under all experimental conditions, however. In the current study, we further investigated the relationship between vmPFC and PL single-unit firing and extinction using inbred mouse models of intact (C57BL/6J, B6) and deficient (129S1/SvImJ, S1) extinction strains. Simultaneous single-unit recordings were made in the PL and vmPFC (encompassing IL) as B6 and S1 mice performed extinction training and retrieval. Impaired extinction retrieval in S1 mice was associated with elevated PL single-unit firing, as compared to firing in extinguishing B6 mice, consistent with the hypothesized pro-fear contribution of PL. Analysis of local field potentials also revealed significantly higher gamma power in the PL of S1 than B6 mice during extinction training and retrieval. In the vmPFC, impaired extinction in S1 mice was also associated with exaggerated single-unit firing, relative to B6 mice. This is in apparent contradiction to evidence that IL activity promotes extinction, but could reflect a (failed) compensatory effort by the vmPFC to mitigate fear-promoting activity in other regions, such as the PL or amygdala. In support of this hypothesis, augmenting IL activity via direct infusion of the GABAA receptor antagonist picrotoxin rescued impaired extinction retrieval in S1 mice. Chronic fluoxetine treatment produced modest reductions in fear during extinction retrieval and increased the number of Zif268-labeled cells in layer II of IL, but failed to increase vmPFC single-unit firing. Collectively, these findings further support the important contribution these cortical regions play in determining the balance between robust extinction on the one hand, and sustained fear on the other. Elucidating the precise nature of these roles could help inform understanding of the pathophysiology of fear-related anxiety disorders.
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91
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Measuring the construct of executive control in schizophrenia: Defining and validating translational animal paradigms for discovery research. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:2125-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2011] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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92
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Karabeg MM, Grauthoff S, Kollert SY, Weidner M, Heiming RS, Jansen F, Popp S, Kaiser S, Lesch KP, Sachser N, Schmitt AG, Lewejohann L. 5-HTT deficiency affects neuroplasticity and increases stress sensitivity resulting in altered spatial learning performance in the Morris water maze but not in the Barnes maze. PLoS One 2013; 8:e78238. [PMID: 24167611 PMCID: PMC3805519 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0078238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether spatial hippocampus-dependent learning is affected by the serotonergic system and stress. Therefore, 5-HTT knockout (-/-), heterozygous (+/-) and wildtype (+/+) mice were subjected to the Barnes maze (BM) and the Morris water maze (WM), the latter being discussed as more aversive. Additionally, immediate early gene (IEG) expression, hippocampal adult neurogenesis (aN), and blood plasma corticosterone were analyzed. While the performance of 5-HTT-/- mice in the BM was undistinguishable from both other genotypes, they performed worse in the WM. However, in the course of the repeated WM trials 5-HTT-/- mice advanced to wildtype level. The experience of a single trial of either the WM or the BM resulted in increased plasma corticosterone levels in all genotypes. After several trials 5-HTT-/- mice exhibited higher corticosterone concentrations compared with both other genotypes in both tests. Corticosterone levels were highest in 5-HTT-/- mice tested in the WM indicating greater aversiveness of the WM and a greater stress sensitivity of 5-HTT deficient mice. Quantitative immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus revealed increased cell counts positive for the IEG products cFos and Arc as well as for proliferation marker Ki67 and immature neuron marker NeuroD in 5-HTT-/- mice compared to 5-HTT+/+ mice, irrespective of the test. Most differences were found in the suprapyramidal blade of the dentate gyrus of the septal hippocampus. Ki67-immunohistochemistry revealed a genotype x environment interaction with 5-HTT genotype differences in naïve controls and WM experience exclusively yielding more Ki67-positive cells in 5-HTT+/+ mice. Moreover, in 5-HTT-/- mice we demonstrate that learning performance correlates with the extent of aN. Overall, higher baseline IEG expression and increased an in the hippocampus of 5-HTT-/- mice together with increased stress sensitivity may constitute the neurobiological correlate of raised alertness, possibly impeding optimal learning performance in the more stressful WM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita M. Karabeg
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sandra Grauthoff
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sina Y. Kollert
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Magdalena Weidner
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Rebecca S. Heiming
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Friederike Jansen
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Sandy Popp
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Sylvia Kaiser
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Klaus-Peter Lesch
- Division of Molecular Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Norbert Sachser
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Angelika G. Schmitt
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatics and Psychotherapy, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Lars Lewejohann
- Department of Behavioral Biology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Behavioural Biology, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
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93
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Weikum WM, Brain U, Chau CMY, Grunau RE, Boyce WT, Diamond A, Oberlander TF. Prenatal serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) antidepressant exposure and serotonin transporter promoter genotype (SLC6A4) influence executive functions at 6 years of age. Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:180. [PMID: 24130516 PMCID: PMC3795328 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI) antidepressants and maternal depression may affect prefrontal cognitive skills (executive functions; EFs) including self-control, working memory and cognitive flexibility. We examined long-term effects of prenatal SRI exposure on EFs to determine whether effects are moderated by maternal mood and/or genetic variations in SLC6A4 (a gene that codes for the serotonin transporter [5-HTT] central to the regulation of synaptic serotonin levels and behavior). Children who were exposed to SRIs prenatally (SRI-exposed N = 26) and non-exposed (N = 38) were studied at age 6 years (M = 6.3; SD = 0.5) using the Hearts & Flowers task (H&F) to assess EFs. Maternal mood was measured during pregnancy (3rd trimester) and when the child was age 6 years (Hamilton Depression Scale). Parent reports of child behavior were also obtained (MacArthur Health & Behavior Questionnaire). Parents of prenatally SRI-exposed children reported fewer child externalizing and inattentive (ADHD) behaviors. Generalized estimate equation modeling showed a significant 3-way interaction between prenatal SRI exposure, SLC6A4 variant, and maternal mood at the 6-year time-point on H&F accuracy. For prenatally SRI-exposed children, regardless of maternal mood, the H&F accuracy of children with reduced 5HTT expression (a short [S] allele) remained stable. Even with increasing maternal depressive symptoms (though all below clinical threshold), EFs of children with at least one short allele were comparable to children with the same genotype whose mothers reported few if any depressive symptoms—in this sense they showed resilience. Children with two long (L) alleles were more sensitive to context. When their mothers had few depressive symptoms, LL children showed extremely good EF performance—better than any other group. When their mothers reported more depressive symptoms, LL children's EF performance was worse than that of any other group. In the face of a mother with a more depressed mood, EFs were best preserved in children prenatally exposed to SRIs and with at least one short SLC6A4 allele. Yet, prenatally-exposed LL children hold out promise of possibly superior EF if their mother's mood remains euthymic or improves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Whitney M Weikum
- Pediatrics, Child and Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia Vancouver, BC, Canada
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94
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Horner AE, Heath CJ, Hvoslef-Eide M, Kent BA, Kim CH, Nilsson SRO, Alsiö J, Oomen CA, Holmes A, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ. The touchscreen operant platform for testing learning and memory in rats and mice. Nat Protoc 2013; 8:1961-84. [PMID: 24051959 PMCID: PMC3914026 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2013.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 268] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
An increasingly popular method of assessing cognitive functions in rodents is the automated touchscreen platform, on which a number of different cognitive tests can be run in a manner very similar to touchscreen methods currently used to test human subjects. This methodology is low stress (using appetitive rather than aversive reinforcement), has high translational potential and lends itself to a high degree of standardization and throughput. Applications include the study of cognition in rodent models of psychiatric and neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, Huntington's disease, frontotemporal dementia), as well as the characterization of the role of select brain regions, neurotransmitter systems and genes in rodents. This protocol describes how to perform four touchscreen assays of learning and memory: visual discrimination, object-location paired-associates learning, visuomotor conditional learning and autoshaping. It is accompanied by two further protocols (also published in this issue) that use the touchscreen platform to assess executive function, working memory and pattern separation.
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95
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Mar AC, Horner AE, Nilsson SRO, Alsiö J, Kent BA, Kim CH, Holmes A, Saksida LM, Bussey TJ. The touchscreen operant platform for assessing executive function in rats and mice. Nat Protoc 2013; 8:1985-2005. [PMID: 24051960 PMCID: PMC4131754 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2013.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This protocol details a subset of assays developed within the touchscreen platform to measure various aspects of executive function in rodents. Three main procedures are included: extinction, measuring the rate and extent of curtailing a response that was previously, but is no longer, associated with reward; reversal learning, measuring the rate and extent of switching a response toward a visual stimulus that was previously not, but has become, associated with reward (and away from a visual stimulus that was previously, but is no longer, rewarded); and the 5-choice serial reaction time (5-CSRT) task, gauging the ability to selectively detect and appropriately respond to briefly presented, spatially unpredictable visual stimuli. These protocols were designed to assess both complementary and overlapping constructs including selective and divided visual attention, inhibitory control, flexibility, impulsivity and compulsivity. The procedures comprise part of a wider touchscreen test battery assessing cognition in rodents with high potential for translation to human studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Mar
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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96
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Bari A, Robbins TW. Inhibition and impulsivity: Behavioral and neural basis of response control. Prog Neurobiol 2013; 108:44-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2013.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1193] [Impact Index Per Article: 108.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 05/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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97
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Chronic alcohol produces neuroadaptations to prime dorsal striatal learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:14783-8. [PMID: 23959891 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1308198110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug addictions including alcoholism are characterized by degradation of executive control over behavior and increased compulsive drug seeking. These profound behavioral changes are hypothesized to involve a shift in the regulation of behavior from prefrontal cortex to dorsal striatum (DLS). Studies in rodents have shown that ethanol disrupts cognitive processes mediated by the prefrontal cortex, but the potential effects of chronic ethanol on DLS-mediated cognition and learning are much less well understood. Here, we first examined the effects of chronic EtOH on DLS neuronal morphology, synaptic plasticity, and endocannabinoid-CB1R signaling. We next tested for ethanol-induced changes in striatal-related learning and DLS in vivo single-unit activity during learning. Mice exposed to chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) vapor exhibited expansion of dendritic material in DLS neurons. Following CIE, DLS endocannabinoid CB1 receptor signaling was down-regulated, and CB1 receptor-dependent long-term depression at DLS synapses was absent. CIE mice showed facilitation of DLS-dependent pairwise visual discrimination and reversal learning, relative to air-exposed controls. CIE mice were also quicker to extinguish a stimulus-reward instrumental response and faster to reduce Pavlovian approach behavior under an omission schedule. In vivo single-unit recording during learning revealed that CIE mice had augmented DLS neuronal activity during correct responses. Collectively, these findings support a model in which chronic ethanol causes neuroadaptations in the DLS that prime for greater DLS control over learning. The shift to striatal dominance over behavior may be a critical step in the progression of alcoholism.
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98
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Talpos J, Steckler T. Touching on translation. Cell Tissue Res 2013; 354:297-308. [DOI: 10.1007/s00441-013-1694-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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99
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Trent S, Dean R, Veit B, Cassano T, Bedse G, Ojarikre OA, Humby T, Davies W. Biological mechanisms associated with increased perseveration and hyperactivity in a genetic mouse model of neurodevelopmental disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:1370-80. [PMID: 23276394 PMCID: PMC3690523 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2012] [Revised: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Chromosomal deletions at Xp22.3 appear to influence vulnerability to the neurodevelopmental disorders attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism. 39,X(Y*)O mice, which lack the murine orthologue of the Xp22.3 ADHD candidate gene STS (encoding steroid sulfatase), exhibit behavioural phenotypes relevant to such disorders (e.g. hyperactivity), elevated hippocampal serotonin (5-HT) levels, and reduced serum levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Here we initially show that 39,X(Y*)O mice are also deficient for the recently-characterised murine orthologue of the Xp22.3 autism candidate gene ASMT (encoding acetylserotonin-O-methyltransferase). Subsequently, to specify potential behavioural correlates of elevated hippocampal 5-HT arising due to the genetic lesion, we compared 39,X(Y*)O MF1 mice to 40,XY MF1 mice on behavioural tasks taxing hippocampal and/or 5-HT function (a 'foraging' task, an object-location task, and the 1-choice serial reaction time task of impulsivity). Although Sts/Asmt deficiency did not influence foraging behaviour, reactivity to familiar objects in novel locations, or 'ability to wait', it did result in markedly increased response rates; these rates correlated with hippocampal 5-HT levels and are likely to index behavioural perseveration, a frequent feature of neurodevelopmental disorders. Additionally, we show that whilst there was no systematic relationship between serum DHEA levels and hippocampal 5-HT levels across 39,X(Y*)O and 40,XY mice, there was a significant inverse linear correlation between serum DHEA levels and activity. Our data suggest that deficiency for genes within Xp22.3 could influence core behavioural features of neurodevelopmental disorders via dissociable effects on hippocampal neurochemistry and steroid hormone levels, and that the mediating neurobiological mechanisms may be investigated in the 39,X(Y*)O model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Trent
- Behavioural Genetics Group and Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Schools of Psychology and Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK,Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences and MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Rachel Dean
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Bonnie Veit
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - Tommaso Cassano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Medical School, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
| | - Gaurav Bedse
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Obah A. Ojarikre
- Division of Stem Cell Biology and Developmental Genetics, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, London, UK
| | - Trevor Humby
- Behavioural Genetics Group and Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Schools of Psychology and Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK,Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences and MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | - William Davies
- Behavioural Genetics Group and Neuroscience and Mental Health Research Institute, Schools of Psychology and Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK,Institute of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences and MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK,Corresponding author at: Henry Wellcome Building, Heath Park Campus, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK. Tel.: +44 0 29 2068 7047; fax: +44 0 29 2068 7068.
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100
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Brigman JL, Daut R, Wright T, Gunduz-Cinar O, Graybeal C, Davis MI, Jiang Z, Saksida L, Jinde S, Pease M, Bussey TJ, Lovinger DM, Nakazawa K, Holmes A. GluN2B in corticostriatal circuits governs choice learning and choice shifting. Nat Neurosci 2013; 16:1101-10. [PMID: 23831965 PMCID: PMC3725191 DOI: 10.1038/nn.3457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
A choice that reliably produces a preferred outcome can be automated to liberate cognitive resources for other tasks. Should an outcome become less desirable, behavior must adapt in parallel or it becomes perseverative. Corticostriatal systems are known to mediate choice learning and flexibility, but the molecular mechanisms of these processes are not well understood. We integrated mouse behavioral, immunocytochemical, in vivo electrophysiological, genetic and pharmacological approaches to study choice. We found that the dorsal striatum (DS) was increasingly activated with choice learning, whereas reversal of learned choice engaged prefrontal regions. In vivo, DS neurons showed activity associated with reward anticipation and receipt that emerged with learning and relearning. Corticostriatal or striatal deletion of Grin2b (encoding the NMDA-type glutamate receptor subunit GluN2B) or DS-restricted GluN2B antagonism impaired choice learning, whereas cortical Grin2b deletion or OFC GluN2B antagonism impaired shifting. Our convergent data demonstrate how corticostriatal GluN2B circuits govern the ability to learn and shift choice behavior.
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MESH Headings
- Adaptation, Psychological/physiology
- Animals
- Anticipation, Psychological/physiology
- Choice Behavior/physiology
- Conditioning, Operant/physiology
- Corpus Striatum/physiology
- Decision Making/physiology
- Discrimination Learning/physiology
- Excitatory Amino Acid Antagonists/pharmacology
- Gene Deletion
- Male
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Nerve Net/physiology
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/deficiency
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/genetics
- Nerve Tissue Proteins/physiology
- Neuronal Plasticity
- Patch-Clamp Techniques
- Pattern Recognition, Visual/physiology
- Phenols/pharmacology
- Piperidines/pharmacology
- Prefrontal Cortex/physiology
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/deficiency
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/genetics
- Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/physiology
- Reward
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan L. Brigman
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | - Rachel Daut
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | - Tara Wright
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | - Ozge Gunduz-Cinar
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | - Carolyn Graybeal
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | | | - Zhihong Jiang
- Unit on Genetics of Cognition and Behavior, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH
| | - Lisa Saksida
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Medical Research Council and Wellcome Trust Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, UK
| | - Seiichiro Jinde
- Unit on Genetics of Cognition and Behavior, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH
| | - Matthew Pease
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
| | - Timothy J. Bussey
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, Medical Research Council and Wellcome Trust Behavioral and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, UK
| | | | - Kazu Nakazawa
- Unit on Genetics of Cognition and Behavior, National Institute of Mental Health, NIH
| | - Andrew Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcoholism and Alcohol Abuse (NIAAA), NIH
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