Regulation of vertebrate homeobox-containing genes by morphogens

Coordinate expression and proliferative role of HOXB genes in activated adult T lymphocytes

We investigated the expression of HOXB cluster genes in purified phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-activated T lymphocytes from normal adult peripheral blood by reverse transcription PCR and RNase protection. These genes are not expressed in quiescent T cells, except for barely detectable B1 RNA. After the PHA stimulus, HOXB gene activation initiates coordinately as a rapid induction wave in the 3'-->5' cluster direction (i.e., from HOXB1 through B9 genes). Thus, (i) expression of the foremost 3'-located B1 and B2 genes peaks 10 min after PHA addition and then rapidly declines, (ii) activation of B3, B4, and B5 begins 10 min after PHA addition and peaks at later times (i.e., at 120 min for B5), (iii) B6, B7, and B9 are expressed at a low level starting at later times (45 to 60 min), and (iv) B8 remains silent. Treatment of PHA-activated T lymphocytes with antisense oligonucleotides to B2 or B4 mRNA causes a drastic inhibition of T-cell proliferation and a decreased expression of T-cell activation markers (i.e., interleukin 2 and transferrin receptors). Similarly, treatment of CEM-CCRF, Peer, and SEZ627 T acute lymphocytic leukemia cell lines with anti-B4 oligomer markedly inhibits cell proliferation. Finally, T cells stimulated by a low dosage of PHA in the presence of 1 microM retinoic acid show a marked increase of both HOXB expression, particularly B2, and cell proliferation. These studies provide novel evidence on the role of HOX genes in adult cell proliferation. (i) Coordinate, early activation of HOXB genes from the 3'-->5' cluster side apparently underlies T-cell activation. (ii) The expression pattern in adult PHA-activated T cells is strikingly similar to that observed in retinoic acid-induced teratocarcinoma cells (A. Simeone, D. Acampora, L. Arcioni, P. W. Andres, E. Boncinelli, and F. Mavilio, Nature (London) 346:763-766, 1990), thus suggesting that molecular mechanisms underlying HOX gene expression in the earliest stages of development may also operate in activated adult T lymphocytes.

Coordinate expression and proliferative role of HOXB genes in activated adult T lymphocytes

We investigated the expression of HOXB cluster genes in purified phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-activated T lymphocytes from normal adult peripheral blood by reverse transcription PCR and RNase protection. These genes are not expressed in quiescent T cells, except for barely detectable B1 RNA. After the PHA stimulus, HOXB gene activation initiates coordinately as a rapid induction wave in the 3'-->5' cluster direction (i.e., from HOXB1 through B9 genes). Thus, (i) expression of the foremost 3'-located B1 and B2 genes peaks 10 min after PHA addition and then rapidly declines, (ii) activation of B3, B4, and B5 begins 10 min after PHA addition and peaks at later times (i.e., at 120 min for B5), (iii) B6, B7, and B9 are expressed at a low level starting at later times (45 to 60 min), and (iv) B8 remains silent. Treatment of PHA-activated T lymphocytes with antisense oligonucleotides to B2 or B4 mRNA causes a drastic inhibition of T-cell proliferation and a decreased expression of T-cell activation markers (i.e., interleukin 2 and transferrin receptors). Similarly, treatment of CEM-CCRF, Peer, and SEZ627 T acute lymphocytic leukemia cell lines with anti-B4 oligomer markedly inhibits cell proliferation. Finally, T cells stimulated by a low dosage of PHA in the presence of 1 microM retinoic acid show a marked increase of both HOXB expression, particularly B2, and cell proliferation. These studies provide novel evidence on the role of HOX genes in adult cell proliferation. (i) Coordinate, early activation of HOXB genes from the 3'-->5' cluster side apparently underlies T-cell activation. (ii) The expression pattern in adult PHA-activated T cells is strikingly similar to that observed in retinoic acid-induced teratocarcinoma cells (A. Simeone, D. Acampora, L. Arcioni, P. W. Andres, E. Boncinelli, and F. Mavilio, Nature (London) 346:763-766, 1990), thus suggesting that molecular mechanisms underlying HOX gene expression in the earliest stages of development may also operate in activated adult T lymphocytes.

Inhibition of retinoic acid-induced activation of 3' human HOXB genes by antisense oligonucleotides affects sequential activation of genes located upstream in the four HOX clusters

Most homeobox genes belonging to the Hox family are sequentially activated in embryonal carcinoma cells upon treatment with retinoic acid. Genes located at the 3' end of each one of the four Hox clusters are activated first, whereas upstream Hox genes are activated progressively later. This activation has been extensively studied for human HOX genes in the NT2/D1 cell line and shown to take place at the transcriptional level. To understand the molecular mechanisms of sequential HOX gene activation in these cells, we tried to modulate the expression of 3' HOX genes through the use of antisense oligonucleotides added to the culture medium. We chose the HOXB locus. A 5- to 15-fold reduction of the expression of HOXB1 and HOXB3 was sufficient to produce a significant inhibition of the activation of the upstream HOXB genes, as well as of their paralogs in the HOXA, HOXC, and HOXD clusters. Conversely, no effect was detectable on downstream HOX genes. The extent of this inhibition increased for progressively more-5' genes. The stability of the corresponding mRNAs appeared to be unaffected, supporting the idea that the observed effect might be mediated at the transcriptional level. These data suggest a cascade model of progressive activation of Hox genes, with a 3'-to-5' polarity.

Specificity of HOX protein function depends on DNA-protein and protein-protein interactions, both mediated by the homeo domain

Transcription of human HOX gene promoters in cultured cells is positively and negatively regulated by HOX proteins interacting with specific target sequences. The human HOXD9 protein activates transcription of the HOXD9 promoter by interacting with the HCR sequence and is antagonized by the HOXD8 protein. HOXD8 is not intrinsically a repressor, since it can activate transcription on different targets. Complete or partial HOXD8/HOXD9 homeo domain swapping indicates that the ability to recognize, and activate transcription from, the HCR target in vivo depends on the amino terminus and helix 1 of the homeo domain. The inhibitory activity of HOXD8 is not affected by deletion of the homeo domain helix 2/3 region, whereas it requires the amino terminus/helix 1 region and an additional, effector domain located at the protein amino-terminal end. This activity is therefore DNA-binding independent, and possibly mediated by protein-protein interactions. Affinity chromatography experiments show that the homeo domain amino terminus/helix 1 region is able to mediate direct interactions between HOX proteins in solution. These data indicate that specificity of HOX protein function in vivo depends on both DNA-protein and protein-protein interactions, mediated by the same sub region of the homeo domain.

Heterotopic expression of homeobox genes as a cause of organ specific metastasis

Organ- and tissue-specific metastases have been proposed as an alteration of invasion, translocation through vascular channels, lodgment, and local proliferation. However, experimental metastasis without tumor formation at the primary site can not be explained by these hypotheses. We hypothesize here that tumor cells heterotopically express homeobox genes as a marker of their location, and that they translocate elsewhere according to positional information encoded in these genes.

Regulation of the human HOXD4 gene by retinoids

Hox genes are developmentally regulated in mammalian embryogenesis, according to temporally and spatially restricted patterns which are affected by retinoids, vitamin A derivatives which have a function as, or at least mimic the action of, axis-specifying morphogens. In the human embryonal carcinoma cell line NT2/D1, HOX gene clusters are activated by at least two retinoids, all-trans- and 9-cis-retinoic acid (RA), in a 3' to 5' sequential cascade which reproduces the activation pattern observed in early embryogenesis. We have studied the regulation of the early activated HOXD4 gene, which is expressed in human embryogenesis in multiple transcripts generated by the developmentally controlled use of alternative transcription start sites and polyadenylation signals. Transfection of a 2.9 kb HOXD4 upstream genomic region linked to a reporter gene in NT2/D1 cells, allowed the identification of two different promoters and a distal enhancer element necessary for RA-dependent gene activation. This element confers to a heterologous promoter the ability to be induced by RA in NT2/D1 cells, and transactivated by alpha, beta and gamma retinoic acid receptors (RARs), but not retinoid X receptor (RXR), in COS-7 cells. DNase I footprinting analysis allowed the identification of four sequences which bind nuclear factors from both RA-induced NT2/D1 cells and embryonic tissues with similar patterns. The use of specific antibodies allowed the identification of at least RAR beta in some of the DNA-protein complexes, although the four sequences bind single RARs transfected in COS cells much less efficiently, or not at all, when compared to a canonical RAR responsive element. Induction of the HOXD4 promoter-enhancer in the presence of a selective RAR alpha antagonist indicated that the RAR alpha-dependent RAR beta activation is nevertheless a necessary step in HOX gene activation. Our results indicate that the ligand-dependent activity of RARs upon specific, cis-acting regulatory elements may have a key role in the induction of early activated HOX genes in response to retinoids. However, RARs represent only a fraction of the transcription factors interacting with the RA-responsive HOXD4 enhancer, which appears to be a complex element requiring specific combinations of nuclear factors for its proper function.