CREB influences timing and entrainment of the SCN circadian clock

Involvement of 5-HT₃ and 5-HT₄ receptors in the regulation of circadian clock gene expression in mouse small intestine

Several lines of evidence suggest that 5-HT receptors play a critical role in the expression of clock genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus, the main circadian oscillator in hamsters. The contributions of 5-HT-receptor subtypes in the intestine, where they are expressed at high concentrations, are however not yet clarified. The 5-HT synthesis inhibitor, p-chlorophenylalanine, attenuated the daily rhythm of Per1 and Per2 gene expression in the intestine. Injection of 5-HT and agonists of the 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptors increased Per1/Per2 expression and decreased Bmal1 expression in a dose-dependent manner. Although treatment with antagonists of 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 alone did not affect clock gene expression, co-injection of these antagonists with 5-HT blocked the 5-HT-induced changes in clock gene expression. Increased tissue levels of 5-HT due to treatment with the antidepressants clomipramine and fluvoxamine did not affect clock gene expression. The present results suggest that the 5-HT system in the small intestine may play a critical role in regulating circadian rhythms through 5-HT3/5-HT4-receptor activation.

The trouble with circadian clock dysfunction: multiple deleterious effects on the brain and body

This review consolidates research employing human correlational and experimental work across brain and body with experimental animal models to provide a more complete representation of how circadian rhythms influence almost all aspects of life. In doing so, we will cover the morphological and biochemical pathways responsible for rhythm generation as well as interactions between these systems and others (e.g., stress, feeding, reproduction). The effects of circadian disruption on the health of humans, including time of day effects, cognitive sequelae, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, diet, obesity, food preferences, mood disorders, and cancer will also be discussed. Subsequently, experimental support for these largely correlational human studies conducted in non-human animal models will be described.

Melatonin in the mammalian olfactory bulb

Melatonin is a neurohormone associated with circadian rhythms. A diurnal rhythm in olfactory sensitivity has been previously reported and melatonin receptor mRNAs have been observed in the olfactory bulb, but the effects of melatonin in the olfactory bulb have not been explored. First, we corroborated data from a previous study that identified melatonin receptor messenger RNAs in the olfactory bulb. We then investigated whether melatonin treatment would affect cells in the olfactory bulbs of rats. Using a combination of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), quantitative PCR (qPCR), cell culture, and electrophysiology, we discovered that melatonin receptors and melatonin synthesis enzymes were present in the olfactory bulb and we observed changes in connexin43 protein, GluR1 mRNA, GluR2 mRNA, Per1 mRNA, Cry2 mRNA, and K(+) currents in response to 2-iodomelatonin. Via qPCR, we observed that messenger RNAs encoding melatonin receptors and melatonin biosynthesis enzymes fluctuated in the olfactory bulb across 24h. Together, these data show that melatonin receptors are present in the olfactory bulb and likely affect olfactory function. Additionally, these data suggest that melatonin may be locally synthesized in the olfactory bulb.

The CRTC1-SIK1 pathway regulates entrainment of the circadian clock

Retinal photoreceptors entrain the circadian system to the solar day. This photic resetting involves cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-mediated upregulation of Per genes within individual cells of the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN). Our detailed understanding of this pathway is poor, and it remains unclear why entrainment to a new time zone takes several days. By analyzing the light-regulated transcriptome of the SCN, we have identified a key role for salt inducible kinase 1 (SIK1) and CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1) in clock re-setting. An entrainment stimulus causes CRTC1 to coactivate CREB, inducing the expression of Per1 and Sik1. SIK1 then inhibits further shifts of the clock by phosphorylation and deactivation of CRTC1. Knockdown of Sik1 within the SCN results in increased behavioral phase shifts and rapid re-entrainment following experimental jet lag. Thus SIK1 provides negative feedback, acting to suppress the effects of light on the clock. This pathway provides a potential target for the regulation of circadian rhythms.

•

Nocturnal light induces widespread transcriptional changes in the SCN

•

The CRTC1-SIK1 cascade regulates entrainment of the circadian clock

•

Negative feedback by SIK1 limits the effects of light on the clock

•

Homeostatic regulation of entrainment ensures gradual adaptation to a new time zone

Clock and light regulation of the CREB coactivator CRTC1 in the suprachiasmatic circadian clock

The CREB/CRE transcriptional pathway has been implicated in circadian clock timing and light-evoked clock resetting. To date, much of the work on CREB in circadian physiology has focused on how changes in the phosphorylation state of CREB regulate the timing processes. However, beyond changes in phosphorylation, CREB-dependent transcription can also be regulated by the CREB coactivator CRTC (CREB-regulated transcription coactivator), also known as TORC (transducer of regulated CREB). Here we profiled both the rhythmic and light-evoked regulation of CRTC1 and CRTC2 in the murine suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the locus of the master mammalian clock. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed rhythmic expression of CRTC1 in the SCN. CRTC1 expression was detected throughout the dorsoventral extent of the SCN in the middle of the subjective day, with limited expression during early night, and late night expression levels intermediate between mid-day and early night levels. In contrast to CRTC1, robust expression of CRTC2 was detected during both the subjective day and night. During early and late subjective night, a brief light pulse induced strong nuclear accumulation of CRTC1 in the SCN. In contrast with CRTC1, photic stimulation did not affect the subcellular localization of CRTC2 in the SCN. Additionally, reporter gene profiling and chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis indicated that CRTC1 was associated with CREB in the 5' regulatory region of the period1 gene, and that overexpression of CRTC1 leads to a marked upregulation in period1 transcription. Together, these data raise the prospect that CRTC1 plays a role in fundamental aspects of SCN clock timing and entrainment.

Antidepressant chronotherapeutics for bipolar depression

Chronotherapeutics refers to treatments based on the principles of circadian rhythm organization and sleep physiology, which control the exposure to environmental stimuli that act on biological rhythms, in order to achieve therapeutic effects in the treatment of psychiatric conditions. It includes manipulations of the sleep-wake cycle such as sleep deprivation and sleep phase advance, and controlled exposure to light and dark. The antidepressant effects of chronotherapeutics are evident in difficult-to-treat conditions such as bipolar depression, which has been associated with extremely low success rates of antidepressant drugs in naturalistic settings and with stable antidepressant response to chronotherapeutics in more than half of the patients. Recent advances in the study of the effects of chronotherapeutics on neurotransmitter systems, and on the biological clock machinery, allow us to pinpoint its mechanism of action and to transform it from a neglected or “orphan” treatment to a powerful clinical instrument in everyday psychiatric practice.

Antidepressant chronotherapeutics for bipolar depression

Chronotherapeutics refers to treatments based on the principles of circadian rhythm organization and sleep physiology, which control the exposure to environmental stimuli that act on biological rhythms, in order to achieve therapeutic effects in the treatment of psychiatric conditions. It includes manipulations of the sleep-wake cycle such as sleep deprivation and sleep phase advance, and controlled exposure to light and dark. The antidepressant effects of chronotherapeutics are evident in difficult-to-treat conditions such as bipolar depression, which has been associated with extremely low success rates of antidepressant drugs in naturalistic settings and with stable antidepressant response to chronotherapeutics in more than half of the patients. Recent advances in the study of the effects of chronotherapeutics on neurotransmitter systems, and on the biological clock machinery, allow us to pinpoint its mechanism of action and to transform it from a neglected or "orphan" treatment to a powerful clinical instrument in everyday psychiatric practice.

Mitogen- and stress-activated protein kinase 1 modulates photic entrainment of the suprachiasmatic circadian clock

The master circadian clock in mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), is under the entraining influence of the external light cycle. At a mechanistic level, intracellular signaling via the p42/44 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway appears to play a central role in light-evoked clock entrainment; however, the precise downstream mechanisms by which this pathway influences clock timing are not known. Within this context, we have previously reported that light stimulates activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase effector mitogen-stress-activated kinase 1 (MSK1) in the SCN. In this study, we utilised MSK1(-/-) mice to further investigate the potential role of MSK1 in circadian clock timing and entrainment. Locomotor activity analysis revealed that MSK1 null mice entrained to a 12 h light/dark cycle and exhibited circadian free-running rhythms in constant darkness. Interestingly, the free-running period in MSK1 null mice was significantly longer than in wild-type control animals, and MSK1 null mice exhibited a significantly greater variance in activity onset. Further, MSK1 null mice exhibited a significant reduction in the phase-delaying response to an early night light pulse (100 lux, 15 min), and, using an 8 h phase-advancing 'jet-lag' experimental paradigm, MSK1 knockout animals exhibited a significantly delayed rate of re-entrainment. At the molecular level, early night light-evoked cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) phosphorylation, histone phosphorylation and Period1 gene expression were markedly attenuated in MSK1(-/-) animals relative to wild-type mice. Together, these data provide key new insights into the molecular mechanisms by which MSK1 affects the SCN clock.

In vivo circadian oscillation of dCREB2 and NF-κB activity in the Drosophila nervous system

cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) are two ubiquitous transcription factors involved in a wide number of cellular processes, including the circadian system. Many previous studies on these factors use cellular assays that provide limited information on circadian activity or anatomical specificity. The ability to study transcription factors in defined tissue within intact animals will help to bridge the gap between cellular and in vivo data. We have used the GAL4-UAS and FLP-FRT systems to gain spatial control over reporter gene expression. Using a luciferase-based reporter, we show in vivo that Drosophila dCREB2- and NF-κB-mediated transcription oscillates in neuronal cells, glia, and in the mushroom body, a higher-order brain center in flies. This oscillation is under circadian control, cycling with a 24-hour rhythm, under both light-dark and dark-dark conditions. In light-light conditions, dCREB2 and NF-κB reporter flies exhibit a suppression of rhythmic activity. Furthermore, neuronal cycling of dCREB2 and NF-κB activity are modulated in period mutant flies, indicating these oscillations are controlled through the central clock. This study shows for the first time region-specific circadian oscillation of dCREB2/NF-κB activity in the Drosophila nervous system.

Evaluating the links between schizophrenia and sleep and circadian rhythm disruption

Sleep and circadian rhythm disruption (SCRD) and schizophrenia are often co-morbid. Here, we propose that the co-morbidity of these disorders stems from the involvement of common brain mechanisms. We summarise recent clinical evidence that supports this hypothesis, including the observation that the treatment of SCRD leads to improvements in both the sleep quality and psychiatric symptoms of schizophrenia patients. Moreover, many SCRD-associated pathologies, such as impaired cognitive performance, are routinely observed in schizophrenia. We suggest that these associations can be explored at a mechanistic level by using animal models. Specifically, we predict that SCRD should be observed in schizophrenia-relevant mouse models. There is a rapidly accumulating body of evidence which supports this prediction, as summarised in this review. In light of these emerging data, we highlight other models which warrant investigation, and address the potential challenges associated with modelling schizophrenia and SCRD in rodents. Our view is that an understanding of the mechanistic overlap between SCRD and schizophrenia will ultimately lead to novel treatment approaches, which will not only ameliorate SCRD in schizophrenia patients, but also will improve their broader health problems and overall quality of life.

Linking neural activity and molecular oscillations in the SCN

Neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) function as part of a central timing circuit that drives daily changes in our behaviour and underlying physiology. A hallmark feature of SCN neuronal populations is that they are mostly electrically silent during the night, start to fire action potentials near dawn and then continue to generate action potentials with a slow and steady pace all day long. Sets of currents are responsible for this daily rhythm, with the strongest evidence for persistent Na(+) currents, L-type Ca(2+) currents, hyperpolarization-activated currents (I(H)), large-conductance Ca(2+) activated K(+) (BK) currents and fast delayed rectifier (FDR) K(+) currents. These rhythms in electrical activity are crucial for the function of the circadian timing system, including the expression of clock genes, and decline with ageing and disease. This article reviews our current understanding of the ionic and molecular mechanisms that drive the rhythmic firing patterns in the SCN.

Uncovering the proteome response of the master circadian clock to light using an AutoProteome system

In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is the central circadian pacemaker that governs rhythmic fluctuations in behavior and physiology in a 24-hr cycle and synchronizes them to the external environment by daily resetting in response to light. The bilateral SCN is comprised of a mere ~20,000 neurons serving as cellular oscillators, a fact that has, until now, hindered the systematic study of the SCN on a global proteome level. Here we developed a fully automated and integrated proteomics platform, termed AutoProteome system, for an in-depth analysis of the light-responsive proteome of the murine SCN. All requisite steps for a large-scale proteomic study, including preconcentration, buffer exchanging, reduction, alkylation, digestion and online two-dimensional liquid chromatography-tandem MS analysis, are performed automatically on a standard liquid chromatography-MS system. As low as 2 ng of model protein bovine serum albumin and up to 20 μg and 200 μg of SCN proteins can be readily processed and analyzed by this system. From the SCN tissue of a single mouse, we were able to confidently identify 2131 proteins, of which 387 were light-regulated based on a spectral counts quantification approach. Bioinformatics analysis of the light-inducible proteins reveals their diverse distribution in different canonical pathways and their heavy connection in 19 protein interaction networks. The AutoProteome system identified vasopressin-neurophysin 2-copeptin and casein kinase 1 delta, both of which had been previously implicated in clock timing processes, as light-inducible proteins in the SCN. Ras-specific guanine nucleotide-releasing factor 1, ubiquitin protein ligase E3A, and X-linked ubiquitin specific protease 9, none of which had previously been implicated in SCN clock timing processes, were also identified in this study as light-inducible proteins. The AutoProteome system opens a new avenue to systematically explore the proteome-wide events that occur in the SCN, either in response to light or other stimuli, or as a consequence of its intrinsic pacemaker capacity.

Cell autonomy and synchrony of suprachiasmatic nucleus circadian oscillators

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus is the site of the master circadian pacemaker in mammals. The individual cells of the SCN are capable of functioning independently from one another and therefore must form a cohesive circadian network through intercellular coupling. The network properties of the SCN lead to coordination of circadian rhythms among its neurons and neuronal subpopulations. There is increasing evidence for multiple interconnected oscillators within the SCN, and in this review we will highlight recent advances in our knowledge of the complex organization and function of the cellular and network-level SCN clock. Understanding the way in which synchrony is achieved between cells in the SCN will provide insight into the means by which this important nucleus orchestrates circadian rhythms throughout the organism.