The Puf family of RNA-binding proteins in plants: phylogeny, structural modeling, activity and subcellular localization

APUM23, a PUF family protein, functions in leaf development and organ polarity in Arabidopsis

The normal biological function of leaves, such as intercepting light and exchanging gases, relies on proper differentiation of adaxial and abaxial polarity. KANADI (KAN) genes, members of the GARP family, are key regulators of abaxial identity in leaf morphogenesis. This study identified a mutant allele (apum23-3) of APUM23, which encodes a Pumilio/PUF domain protein and acts as an enhancer of the kan mutant. Arabidopsis APUM23 has been shown to function in pre-rRNA processing and play pleiotropic roles in plant development. The apum23-3 mutant also synergistically interacts with other leaf polarity mutants, affects proliferation of division-competent cells, and alters the expression of important leaf polarity genes. These phenotypes show that APUM23 has critical functions in plant development, particularly in polarity formation. The PUF gene family is conserved across kingdoms yet it has not been well characterized in plants. These results illuminating the functions of APUM23 suggest a novel role for PUF genes in Arabidopsis leaf development.

Translational Regulation of Cytoplasmic mRNAs

Translation of the coding potential of a messenger RNA into a protein molecule is a fundamental process in all living cells and consumes a large fraction of metabolites and energy resources in growing cells. Moreover, translation has emerged as an important control point in the regulation of gene expression. At the level of gene regulation, translational control is utilized to support the specific life histories of plants, in particular their responses to the abiotic environment and to metabolites. This review summarizes the diversity of translational control mechanisms in the plant cytoplasm, focusing on specific cases where mechanisms of translational control have evolved to complement or eclipse other levels of gene regulation. We begin by introducing essential features of the translation apparatus. We summarize early evidence for translational control from the pre-Arabidopsis era. Next, we review evidence for translation control in response to stress, to metabolites, and in development. The following section emphasizes RNA sequence elements and biochemical processes that regulate translation. We close with a chapter on the role of signaling pathways that impinge on translation.

Role of Arabidopsis Pumilio RNA binding protein 5 in virus infection

Regulation of gene expression is mediated by diverse RNA binding proteins which play important roles in development and defense processes. Pumilio/FBF (Puf) protein in mammals functions as a posttranscriptional/translational repressor by binding to the 3' UTR regions of its target mRNAs. Previous study reported that APUM5 provides protection against CMV infection by directly binding to CMV RNAs in Arabidopsis. CMV RNAs contain putative Pumilio-binding motifs and APUM5 bound to the 3' UTR and some of its internal motifs both in vitro and in vivo. APUM5 works as a negative regulator of the 3' UTR of CMV and it might regulate CMV replication. Our findings suggest that APUM5 acts as a defensive repressor in plants during CMV infection. However, functions of APUM5 and other APUM members are still not clear and more studies are needed to find out the interacting partners and target mRNAs in host plant.

Arabidopsis Pumilio protein APUM5 suppresses Cucumber mosaic virus infection via direct binding of viral RNAs

Posttranscriptional/translational regulation of gene expression is mediated by diverse RNA binding proteins and plays an important role in development and defense processes. Among the RNA-binding proteins, the mammalian Pumilio RNA-binding family (Puf) acts as posttranscriptional and translational repressors. An Arabidopsis Puf mutant, apum5-D, was isolated during a T-DNA insertional mutant screen for mutants with reduced susceptibility to Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) infection. Interestingly, CMV RNA contained putative Pumilio-homology domain binding motifs in its 3' untranslated region (UTR) and internal places in its genome. APUM5 directly bound to the 3' UTR motifs and some internal binding motifs in CMV RNAs in vitro and in vivo. We showed that APUM5 acts as a translational repressor that regulates the 3' UTR of CMV and affects CMV replication. This study uncovered a unique defense system that Arabidopsis APUM5 specifically regulates CMV infection by the direct binding of CMV RNAs.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTAL REGULATORS AND THEIR EXPRESSION IN TWO CLOSELY RELATED SPECIES OF PORPHYRA (RHODOPHYTA)(1)

Little is known about the genetic and biochemical mechanisms that underlie red algal development, for example, why the group failed to evolve complex parenchyma and tissue differentiation. Here we examined expressed sequence tag (EST) data from two closely related species, Porphyra umbilicalis (L.) J. Agardh and P. purpurea (Roth) C. Agardh, for conserved developmental regulators known from model eukaryotes, and their expression levels in several developmental stages. Genes for most major developmental families were present, including MADS-box and homeodomain (HD) proteins, SNF2 chromatin-remodelers, and proteins involved in sRNA biogenesis. Some of these genes displayed altered expression correlating with different life history stages or cell types. Notably, two ESTs encoding HD proteins showed eightfold higher expression in the P. purpurea sporophyte (conchocelis) than in the gametophyte (blade), whereas two MADS domain-containing paralogs showed significantly different patterns of expression in the conchocelis and blade respectively. These developmental gene families do not appear to have undergone the kinds of dramatic expansions in copy number found in multicellular land plants and animals, which are important for regulating developmental processes in those groups. Analyses of small RNAs did not validate the presence of miRNAs, but homologs of Argonaute were present. In general, it appears that red algae began with a similar molecular toolkit for directing development as did other multicellular eukaryotes, but probably evolved altered roles for many key proteins, as well as novel mechanisms yet to be discovered.

Conservation of the RNA Transport Machineries and Their Coupling to Translation Control across Eukaryotes

Restriction of proteins to discrete subcellular regions is a common mechanism to establish cellular asymmetries and depends on a coordinated program of mRNA localization and translation control. Many processes from the budding of a yeast to the establishment of metazoan embryonic axes and the migration of human neurons, depend on this type of cell polarization. How factors controlling transport and translation assemble to regulate at the same time the movement and translation of transported mRNAs, and whether these mechanisms are conserved across kingdoms is not yet entirely understood. In this review we will focus on some of the best characterized examples of mRNA transport machineries, the "yeast locasome" as an example of RNA transport and translation control in unicellular eukaryotes, and on the Drosophila Bic-D/Egl/Dyn RNA localization machinery as an example of RNA transport in higher eukaryotes. This focus is motivated by the relatively advanced knowledge about the proteins that connect the localizing mRNAs to the transport motors and the many well studied proteins involved in translational control of specific transcripts that are moved by these machineries. We will also discuss whether the core of these RNA transport machineries and factors regulating mRNA localization and translation are conserved across eukaryotes.

Rewiring of posttranscriptional RNA regulons: Puf4p in fungi as an example

It has been increasingly clear that changes in gene regulation play important roles in physiological and phenotypic evolution. Rewiring gene-regulatory networks, i.e., alteration of the gene-regulation system for different biological functions, has been demonstrated in various species. Posttranscriptional regulons have prominent roles in coordinating gene expression in a variety of eukaryotes. In this study, using Puf4p in fungi as an example, we demonstrate that posttranscriptional regulatory networks can also be rewired during evolution. Although Puf4p is highly conserved in fungi, targets of the posttranscriptional regulon are functionally diverse among known fungal species. In the Saccharomycotina subdivision, target genes of Puf4p mostly conduct function in the nucleolus; however, in the Pezizomycotina subdivision, they are enriched in the mitochondria. Furthermore, we demonstrate different regulation efficiencies of mitochondrial function by PUF proteins in different fungal clades. Our results indicate that rewiring of posttranscription regulatory networks may be an important way of generating genetic novelties in gene regulation during evolution.

The progeny of Arabidopsis thaliana plants exposed to salt exhibit changes in DNA methylation, histone modifications and gene expression

Plants are able to acclimate to new growth conditions on a relatively short time-scale. Recently, we showed that the progeny of plants exposed to various abiotic stresses exhibited changes in genome stability, methylation patterns and stress tolerance. Here, we performed a more detailed analysis of methylation patterns in the progeny of Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) plants exposed to 25 and 75 mM sodium chloride. We found that the majority of gene promoters exhibiting changes in methylation were hypermethylated, and this group was overrepresented by regulators of the chromatin structure. The analysis of DNA methylation at gene bodies showed that hypermethylation in the progeny of stressed plants was primarily due to changes in the 5′ and 3′ ends as well as in exons rather than introns. All but one hypermethylated gene tested had lower gene expression. The analysis of histone modifications in the promoters and coding sequences showed that hypermethylation and lower gene expression correlated with the enrichment of H3K9me2 and depletion of H3K9ac histones. Thus, our work demonstrated a high degree of correlation between changes in DNA methylation, histone modifications and gene expression in the progeny of salt-stressed plants.

Beyond transcription: RNA-binding proteins as emerging regulators of plant response to environmental constraints

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) govern many aspects of RNA metabolism, including pre-mRNA processing, transport, stability/decay and translation. Although relatively few plant RNA-binding proteins have been characterized genetically and biochemically, more than 200 RBP genes have been predicted in Arabidopsis and rice genomes, suggesting that they might serve specific plant functions. Besides their role in normal cellular functions, RBPs are emerging also as an interesting class of proteins involved in a wide range of post-transcriptional regulatory events that are important in providing plants with the ability to respond rapidly to changes in environmental conditions. Here, we review the most recent results and evidence on the functional role of RBPs in plant adaptation to various unfavourable environmental conditions and their contribution to enhance plant tolerance to abiotic stresses, with special emphasis on osmotic and temperature stress.

Differential expression of the microRNAs in superior and inferior spikelets in rice (Oryza sativa)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a critical role in post-transcriptional gene regulation and have been shown to control many genes involved in various biological and metabolic processes. This work investigated miRNAs in rice (Oryza sativa), an important food crop. High-throughput sequencing technology was used to reveal expression differences in miRNAs between superior and inferior spikelets in rice (japonica cultivar Xinfeng 2) at 18 d after fertilization. Totals of 351 and 312 known miRNAs were obtained from the superior and inferior spikelets, respectively. Analysis of the expression profiles of these miRNAs showed that 189 miRNAs were differentially expressed between superior spikelets and inferior spikelets. In addition, 43 novel miRNAs were identified mostly by the accumulation of miRNA*s expressed differentially between the superior and inferior spikelets. Further analysis with bioinformatics software and comparison with existing databases showed that these differentially expressed miRNAs may individually participate in regulating hormone metabolism, carbohydrate metabolic pathways, and cell division during rice grain development. The results indicate that the slow grain-filling and low grain weight of rice inferior spikelets are attributed partly to differences in expression and function between superior and inferior spikelet miRNAs.

Transcriptome analysis of the Arabidopsis megaspore mother cell uncovers the importance of RNA helicases for plant germline development

Germ line specification is a crucial step in the life cycle of all organisms. For sexual plant reproduction, the megaspore mother cell (MMC) is of crucial importance: it marks the first cell of the plant "germline" lineage that gets committed to undergo meiosis. One of the meiotic products, the functional megaspore, subsequently gives rise to the haploid, multicellular female gametophyte that harbours the female gametes. The MMC is formed by selection and differentiation of a single somatic, sub-epidermal cell in the ovule. The transcriptional network underlying MMC specification and differentiation is largely unknown. We provide the first transcriptome analysis of an MMC using the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana with a combination of laser-assisted microdissection and microarray hybridizations. Statistical analyses identified an over-representation of translational regulation control pathways and a significant enrichment of DEAD/DEAH-box helicases in the MMC transcriptome, paralleling important features of the animal germline. Analysis of two independent T-DNA insertion lines suggests an important role of an enriched helicase, MNEME (MEM), in MMC differentiation and the restriction of the germline fate to only one cell per ovule primordium. In heterozygous mem mutants, additional enlarged MMC-like cells, which sometimes initiate female gametophyte development, were observed at higher frequencies than in the wild type. This closely resembles the phenotype of mutants affected in the small RNA and DNA-methylation pathways important for epigenetic regulation. Importantly, the mem phenotype shows features of apospory, as female gametophytes initiate from two non-sister cells in these mutants. Moreover, in mem gametophytic nuclei, both higher order chromatin structure and the distribution of LIKE HETEROCHROMATIN PROTEIN1 were affected, indicating epigenetic perturbations. In summary, the MMC transcriptome sets the stage for future functional characterization as illustrated by the identification of MEM, a novel gene involved in the restriction of germline fate.

Pumilio Puf domain RNA-binding proteins in Arabidopsis

Pumilio proteins are a class of RNA-binding proteins harboring Puf domains (or PUM-HD; Pumilio-Homology Domain), named after the founding members, Pumilio (from Drosophila melanogaster) and FBF (Fem-3 mRNA-Binding Factor from Caenorhabditis elegans). The domains contain multiple tandem repeats each of which recognizes one RNA base and is comprised of 35-39 amino acids. Puf domain proteins have been reported in organisms ranging from single-celled yeast to higher multicellular eukaryotes, such as humans and plants. In yeast and animals, they are involved in a variety of posttranscriptional RNA metabolism including RNA decay, RNA transport, rRNA processing and translational repression. However, their roles in plants are largely unknown. Recently, we have characterized the first member of the Puf family of RNA-binding proteins, APUM23, in Arabidopsis. Here, we discuss and summarize the diverse roles and targets of Puf proteins previously reported in other organisms and then highlight the potential regulatory roles of Puf proteins in Arabidopsis, using our recent study as an example.

Evolution of RNA-binding proteins in animals: insights from genome-wide analysis in the sponge Amphimedon queenslandica

RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) are key players in various biological processes, most notably regulation of gene expression at the posttranscriptional level. Although many RBPs have been carefully studied in model organisms, very few studies have addressed the evolution of these proteins at the scale of the animal kingdom. We identified a large set of putative RBPs encoded by the genome of the demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica, a species representing a basal animal lineage. We compared the Amphimedon RBPs with those encoded by the genomes of two bilaterians (human and Drosophila), representatives of two other basal metazoan lineages (a placozoan and a cnidarian), a choanoflagellate (probable sister group of animals), and two fungi. We established the evolutionary history of 32 families of RBPs and found that most of the diversity of RBPs present in contemporary metazoans, including humans, was already established in the last common ancestor (LCA) of animals. This includes RBPs known to be involved in key processes in bilaterians, such as development, stem and/or germ cells properties, and noncoding RNA pathways. From this analysis, we infer that a complex toolkit of RBPs was present in the LCA of animals and that it has been recruited to perform new functions during early animal evolution, in particular in relation to the acquisition of multicellularity.

APUM23, a nucleolar Puf domain protein, is involved in pre-ribosomal RNA processing and normal growth patterning in Arabidopsis

Pumilio, an RNA-binding protein that contains tandemly repeated Puf domains, is known to repress translational activity in early embryogenesis and polarized cells of non-plant species. Although Pumilio proteins have been characterized in many eukaryotes, their role in plants is unknown. In the present study, we characterized an Arabidopsis Pumilio-encoding gene, APUM23. APUM23 is constitutively expressed, with higher levels in metabolically active tissues, and its expression is up-regulated in the presence of either glucose or sucrose. The T-DNA insertion mutants apum23-1 and apum23-2 showed slow growth, with serrated and scrunched leaves, an abnormal venation pattern, and distorted organization of the palisade parenchyma cells - a phenotype that is reminiscent of nucleolin and ribosomal protein gene mutants. Intracellular localization studies indicate that APUM23 predominantly localizes to the nucleolus. Based on this localization, rRNA processing was examined. In apum23, 35S pre-rRNA, and unprocessed 18S and 5.8S poly(A) rRNAs, accumulated without affecting the steady-state levels of mature rRNAs, indicating that APUM23 is involved in the processing and/or degradation of 35S pre-rRNA and rRNA maturation by-products. The apum23 mutant showed increased levels of 18S rRNA biogenesis-related U3 and U14 small nucleolar RNAs (snoRNAs) and accumulated RNAs within the nucleolus. Our data suggest that APUM23 plays an important role in plant development via rRNA processing.

RBPDB: a database of RNA-binding specificities

The RNA-Binding Protein DataBase (RBPDB) is a collection of experimental observations of RNA-binding sites, both in vitro and in vivo, manually curated from primary literature. To build RBPDB, we performed a literature search for experimental binding data for all RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) with known RNA-binding domains in four metazoan species (human, mouse, fly and worm). In total, RPBDB contains binding data on 272 RBPs, including 71 that have motifs in position weight matrix format, and 36 sets of sequences of in vivo-bound transcripts from immunoprecipitation experiments. The database is accessible by a web interface which allows browsing by domain or by organism, searching and export of records, and bulk data downloads. Users can also use RBPDB to scan sequences for RBP-binding sites. RBPDB is freely available, without registration at http://rbpdb.ccbr.utoronto.ca/.