Role of Infiltrating Monocytes in the Development of Radiation-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Proportions of resting memory T cells and monocytes in blood have prognostic significance in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic lung disease characterized by progressive decline of lung function. Here, we tested the importance of differential proportions of blood immune cells to IPF clinical outcomes. We used Cibersort to deconvolute immune cell components based on PBMCs or whole blood IPF genomics datasets. We found that a higher proportion of resting memory (RM) T cells was associated with a better survival and a higher DLco (diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide) in IPF patients. The association was also found in opposite direction for monocytes. Additionally, in IPF patients as compared to healthy controls, proportions of monocytes were observed to be higher, yet RM T cells were observed to be lower. Taken together, our result suggests a beneficial effect of RM T cells and a detrimental effect of monocytes for IPF. Future genomics studies of IPF should be more focused on these two types of cells.

The CD73/Ado System-A New Player in RT Induced Adverse Late Effects

Radiotherapy (RT) is a central component of standard treatment for many cancer patients. RT alone or in multimodal treatment strategies has a documented contribution to enhanced local control and overall survival of cancer patients, and cancer cure. Clinical RT aims at maximizing tumor control, while minimizing the risk for RT-induced adverse late effects. However, acute and late toxicities of IR in normal tissues are still important biological barriers to successful RT: While curative RT may not be tolerable, sub-optimal tolerable RT doses will lead to fatal outcomes by local recurrence or metastatic disease, even when accepting adverse normal tissue effects that decrease the quality of life of irradiated cancer patients. Technical improvements in treatment planning and the increasing use of particle therapy have allowed for a more accurate delivery of IR to the tumor volume and have thereby helped to improve the safety profile of RT for many solid tumors. With these technical and physical strategies reaching their natural limits, current research for improving the therapeutic gain of RT focuses on innovative biological concepts that either selectively limit the adverse effects of RT in normal tissues without protecting the tumor or specifically increase the radiosensitivity of the tumor tissue without enhancing the risk of normal tissue complications. The biology-based optimization of RT requires the identification of biological factors that are linked to differential radiosensitivity of normal or tumor tissues, and are amenable to therapeutic targeting. Extracellular adenosine is an endogenous mediator critical to the maintenance of homeostasis in various tissues. Adenosine is either released from stressed or injured cells or generated from extracellular adenine nucleotides by the concerted action of the ectoenzymes ectoapyrase (CD39) and 5′ ectonucleotidase (NT5E, CD73) that catabolize ATP to adenosine. Recent work revealed a role of the immunoregulatory CD73/adenosine system in radiation-induced fibrotic disease in normal tissues suggesting a potential use as novel therapeutic target for normal tissue protection. The present review summarizes relevant findings on the pathologic roles of CD73 and adenosine in radiation-induced fibrosis in different organs (lung, skin, gut, and kidney) that have been obtained in preclinical models and proposes a refined model of radiation-induced normal tissue toxicity including the disease-promoting effects of radiation-induced activation of CD73/adenosine signaling in the irradiated tissue environment. However, expression and activity of the CD73/adenosine system in the tumor environment has also been linked to increased tumor growth and tumor immune escape, at least in preclinical models. Therefore, we will discuss the use of pharmacologic inhibition of CD73/adenosine-signaling as a promising strategy for improving the therapeutic gain of RT by targeting both, malignant tumor growth and adverse late effects of RT with a focus on fibrotic disease. The consideration of the therapeutic window is particularly important in view of the increasing use of RT in combination with various molecularly targeted agents and immunotherapy to enhance the tumor radiation response, as such combinations may result in increased or novel toxicities, as well as the increasing number of cancer survivors.

The Impact of Versatile Macrophage Functions on Acute Kidney Injury and Its Outcomes

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common and devastating clinical condition with a high morbidity and mortality rate and is associated with a rapid decline of kidney function mostly resulting from the injury of proximal tubules. AKI is typically accompanied by inflammation and immune activation and involves macrophages (Mϕ) from the beginning: The inflamed kidney recruits “classically” activated (M1) Mϕ, which are initially poised to destroy potential pathogens, exacerbating inflammation. Of note, they soon turn into “alternatively” activated (M2) Mϕ and promote immunosuppression and tissue regeneration. Based on their roles in kidney recovery, there is a growing interest to use M2 Mϕ and Mϕ-modulating agents therapeutically against AKI. However, it is pertinent to note that the clinical translation of Mϕ-based therapies needs to be critically reviewed and questioned since Mϕ are functionally plastic with versatile roles in AKI and some Mϕ functions are detrimental to the kidney during AKI. In this review, we discuss the current state of knowledge on the biology of different Mϕ subtypes during AKI and, especially, on their role in AKI and assess the impact of versatile Mϕ functions on AKI based on the findings from translational AKI studies.

Monocyte Polarization is Altered by Total-Body Irradiation in Male Rhesus Macaques: Implications for Delayed Effects of Acute Radiation Exposure

Radiation-induced fibrosis (RIF) is a common delayed effect of acute ionizing radiation exposure (DEARE) affecting diverse tissues including the heart, lungs, liver and skin, leading to reduced tissue function and increased morbidity. Monocytes, which may be classified into classical (CD14⁺⁺, CD16^-), intermediate (CD14⁺⁺, CD16⁺) and non-classical (CD14^+/low, CD16⁺⁺) subtypes in humans and non-human primates (NHPs), and monocyte-derived macrophages may play an integral role in the pathogenesis of RIF. We tested the hypothesis that moderate to high levels of total-body exposure to radiation would alter monocyte polarization and produce phenotypes that could promote multi-organ fibrosis in a wellestablished NHP model of DEARE. Subjects were 16 young adult male rhesus macaques, ten of which were exposed to high-energy, 4 Gy X-ray total-body irradiation (TBI) and six that received sham irradiation (control). Total monocytes assessed by complete blood counts were 89% depleted in TBI animals by day 9 postirradiation (P < 0.05), but recovered by day 30 postirradiation and did not differ from control levels thereafter. Monocytes were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and sorted into classical, intermediate and non-classical subsets using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) prior to and at 6 months post-TBI. At 6 months postirradiation, monocyte polarization shifted towards lower classical (92% → 86%) and higher intermediate (7% → 12%) and non-classical monocyte subsets (0.6% → 2%) (all P < 0.05) in TBI animals compared to baseline. No change in monocyte subsets was observed in control animals. Transcriptional profiles in classical and intermediate monocyte subsets were assessed using RNAseq. Classical monocyte gene expression did not change significantly over time or differ cross-sectionally between TBI and control groups. In contrast, significant numbers of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected in intermediate monocyte comparisons between the TBI animals and all animals at baseline (304 DEGs), and in the TBI versus control animals at 6 months postirradiation (67 DEGs). Intermediate monocytes also differed between baseline and 6 months in control animals (147 DEGs). Pathway analysis was used to identify genes within significant canonical pathways, yielding 52 DEGs that were specific to irradiated intermediate monocytes. These DEGs and significant canonical pathways were associated with pro-fibrotic and anti-inflammatory signaling pathways that have been noted to induce M2 macrophage polarization. These findings support the hypothesis that TBI may alter monocyte programming and polarization towards a profibrotic phenotype, providing a novel target opportunity for therapies to inhibit or prevent RIF.

Role of Macrophages in Acute Lung Injury and Chronic Fibrosis Induced by Pulmonary Toxicants

A diverse group of toxicants has been identified that cause injury to the lung including gases (eg, ozone, chlorine), particulates/aerosols (eg, diesel exhaust, fly ash, other combustion products, mustards, nanomaterials, silica, asbestos), chemotherapeutics (eg, bleomycin), and radiation. The pathologic response to these toxicants depends on the dose and duration of exposure and their physical/chemical properties. A common response to pulmonary toxicant exposure is an accumulation of proinflammatory/cytotoxic M1 macrophages at sites of tissue injury, followed by the appearance of anti-inflammatory/wound repair M2 macrophages. It is thought that the outcome of the pathogenic responses to toxicants depends on the balance in the activity of these macrophage subpopulations. Overactivation of either M1 or M2 macrophages leads to injury and disease pathogenesis. Thus, the very same macrophage-derived mediators, released in controlled amounts to destroy injurious materials and pathogens (eg, reactive oxygen species, reactive nitrogen species, proteases, tumor necrosis factor α) and initiate wound repair (eg, transforming growth factor β, connective tissue growth factor, vascular endothelial growth factor), can exacerbate acute lung injury and/or induce chronic disease such as fibrosis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma, when released in excess. This review focuses on the role of macrophage subsets in acute lung injury and chronic fibrosis. Understanding how these pathologies develop following exposure to toxicants, and the contribution of resident and inflammatory macrophages to disease pathogenesis may lead to the development of novel approaches for treating lung diseases.

Bone marrow-derived Ly6C- macrophages promote ischemia-induced chronic kidney disease

Macrophages play an important role in renal injury and repair after acute kidney injury (AKI) and the subsequent chronic kidney disease (CKD) that often results. However, as macrophages have a high degree of plasticity and heterogeneity, the function(s) of macrophage subtypes in AKI-to-CKD progression are not fully understood. Here, we focused on Ly6C⁻ macrophages, which are derived from the embryonic yolk sac and post-development become resident in the kidneys. We found that C–C chemokine receptor type 2 (CCR2) deficiency, which blocks the migration of Ly6C⁺ macrophages from the bone marrow to the sites of injury, alleviated ischemia-induced AKI in mice. Unexpectedly, though, CCR2 deficiency worsened the subsequent renal fibrosis, which was marked by notable intra-renal infiltration of Ly6C⁻ macrophages. These Ly6C⁻ macrophages were greater in number in both the acute and chronic phases after ischemia reperfusion (I/R) in kidneys of wild type (WT) mice, and we showed them to be derived from the bone marrow by bone marrow chimerism. Clodronate Liposomes (CLs)-mediated depletion of renal Ly6C⁻ macrophages in CCR2^−/− mice or in WT mice after I/R alleviated the renal injury and fibrosis. On the contrary, adoptive transfer of Ly6C⁻ macrophages from injured kidneys of WT mice into immune-deficient mice was sufficient to induce renal injury and fibrosis. Transcriptome sequencing of Ly6C⁻ macrophages from injured kidneys revealed that they secreted various cytokines and growth factors, which were associated with the transdifferentiation of fibroblasts into myofibroblasts. This transdifferentiation effect was further supported by in vitro studies showing that Ly6C⁻ macrophages induced the secretion of extracellular matrix proteins from co-cultured fibroblasts. In conclusion, the presence of bone marrow-derived Ly6C⁻ macrophages after ischemia induces AKI and worsens subsequent CKD.

Advances in Molecular Mechanisms and Treatment of Radiation-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Radiation-induced pulmonary fibrosis (RIPF) is a common complication in patients with lung cancer and breast cancer after receiving thoracic radiotherapy. The average incidence of RIPF is 16%-28% after radiotherapy. RIPF includes a heterogeneous group of lung disorders characterized by progressive and irreversible destruction of lung architecture and disruption of gas exchange. The clinical signs of RIPF include increasing dyspnea, deteriorating lung function, and accumulation of interstitial fluid, eventually leading to respiratory failure. No medical therapy for RIPF has been approved for routine clinical use despite the apparent need for an effective treatment. Numerous signaling pathways are involved in the initiation and progression of RIPF. Also, various approaches for RIPF treatments have focused on several aspects of the current understanding of the molecular pathology of RIPF. This review used the mechanistic categories of associated cell signaling pathways, epithelial cell dysfunction and senescence, abnormal lung remodeling, and aberrant innate and adaptive immunity to review the published literature on RIPF to date and then to identify potential areas for the effective treatment of RIPF.

Macrophages in radiation injury: a new therapeutic target

Radiotherapy can induce toxicity in healthy tissues such as radiation-induced fibrosis (RIF), and macrophages are proposed as new profibrogenic cells. In this Point-of-View, we summarize the role of the immune response in ionizing radiation injury, and we focus on macrophages as a new therapeutic target in RIF.

Normal tissue damage: its importance, history and challenges for the future

Sir Oliver Scott, a philanthropist and radiation biologist and, therefore, the epitome of a gentleman and a scholar, was an early Director of the BECC Radiobiology Research Unit at Mount Vernon. His tenure preceded that of Jack Fowler, with both contributing to basic, translational and clinical thought and application in radiation across the globe. With respect to this review, Fowler's name in particular has remained synonymous with the use of models, both animal and mathematical, that assess and quantify the biological mechanisms that underlie radiation-associated normal tissue toxicities. An understanding of these effects is critical to the optimal use of radiation therapy in the clinic; however, the role that basic sciences play in clinical practice has been undergoing considerable change in recent years, particularly in the USA, where there has been a growing emphasis on engineering and imaging to improve radiation delivery, with empirical observations of clinical outcome taking the place of models underpinned by evidence from basic science experiments. In honour of Scott and Fowler's work, we have taken this opportunity to review how our respective fields of radiation biology and radiation physics have intertwined over the years, affecting the clinical use of radiation with respect to normal tissue outcomes. We discuss the past and current achievements, with the hope of encouraging a revived interest in physics and biology as they relate to radiation oncology practice, since, like Scott and Fowler, we share the goal of improving the future outlook for cancer patients.