The nuclear envelope as a chromatin organizer

Nuclear lamins are not required for lamina-associated domain organization in mouse embryonic stem cells

In mammals, the nuclear lamina interacts with hundreds of large genomic regions, termed lamina-associated domains (LADs) that are generally in a transcriptionally repressed state. Lamins form the major structural component of the lamina and have been reported to bind DNA and chromatin. Here, we systematically evaluate whether lamins are necessary for the LAD organization in murine embryonic stem cells. Surprisingly, removal of essentially all lamins does not have any detectable effect on the genome-wide interaction pattern of chromatin with emerin, a marker of the inner nuclear membrane. This suggests that other components of the lamina mediate these interactions.

The plant nuclear envelope as a multifunctional platform LINCed by SUN and KASH

The nuclear envelope (NE) is a double membrane system enclosing the genome of eukaryotes. Besides nuclear pore proteins, which form channels at the NE, nuclear membranes are populated by a collection of NE proteins that perform various cellular functions. However, in contrast to well-conserved nuclear pore proteins, known NE proteins share little homology between opisthokonts and plants. Recent studies on NE protein complexes formed by Sad1/UNC-84 (SUN) and Klarsicht/ANC-1/Syne-1 Homology (KASH) proteins have advanced our understanding of plant NE proteins and revealed their function in anchoring other proteins at the NE, nuclear shape determination, nuclear positioning, anti-pathogen defence, root development, and meiotic chromosome organization. In this review, we discuss the current understanding of plant SUN, KASH, and other related NE proteins, and compare their function with the opisthokont counterparts.

Lamins: nuclear intermediate filament proteins with fundamental functions in nuclear mechanics and genome regulation

Lamins are intermediate filament proteins that form a scaffold, termed nuclear lamina, at the nuclear periphery. A small fraction of lamins also localize throughout the nucleoplasm. Lamins bind to a growing number of nuclear protein complexes and are implicated in both nuclear and cytoskeletal organization, mechanical stability, chromatin organization, gene regulation, genome stability, differentiation, and tissue-specific functions. The lamin-based complexes and their specific functions also provide insights into possible disease mechanisms for human laminopathies, ranging from muscular dystrophy to accelerated aging, as observed in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria and atypical Werner syndromes.

Identification of unique SUN-interacting nuclear envelope proteins with diverse functions in plants

Although a plethora of nuclear envelope (NE) transmembrane proteins (NETs) have been identified in opisthokonts, plant NETs are largely unknown. The only known NET homologues in plants are Sad1/UNC-84 (SUN) proteins, which bind Klarsicht/ANC-1/Syne-1 homology (KASH) proteins. Therefore, de novo identification of plant NETs is necessary. Based on similarities between opisthokont KASH proteins and the only known plant KASH proteins, WPP domain-interacting proteins, we used a computational method to identify the KASH subset of plant NETs. Ten potential plant KASH protein families were identified, and five candidates from four of these families were verified for their NE localization, depending on SUN domain interaction. Of those, Arabidopsis thaliana SINE1 is involved in actin-dependent nuclear positioning in guard cells, whereas its paralogue SINE2 contributes to innate immunity against an oomycete pathogen. This study dramatically expands our knowledge of plant KASH proteins and suggests that plants and opisthokonts have recruited different KASH proteins to perform NE regulatory functions.

Mechanisms of epigenetic memory

Although genetics has an essential role in defining the development, morphology, and physiology of an organism, epigenetic mechanisms have an essential role in modulating these properties by regulating gene expression. During development, epigenetic mechanisms establish stable gene expression patterns to ensure proper differentiation. Such mechanisms also allow organisms to adapt to environmental changes and previous experiences can impact the future responsiveness of an organism to a stimulus over long timescales and even over generations. Here, we discuss the concept of epigenetic memory, defined as the stable propagation of a change in gene expression or potential induced by developmental or environmental stimuli. We highlight three distinct paradigms of epigenetic memory that operate on different timescales.

Nuclear compartmentalization of odorant receptor genes

Odorants are detected by odorant receptors, which are located on olfactory sensory neurons of the nose. Each olfactory sensory neuron expresses one single odorant receptor gene allele from a large family of odorant receptor genes. To gain insight into the mechanisms underlying this monogenic and monoallelic expression, we examined the 3D nuclear organization of olfactory sensory neurons and determined the positions of homologous odorant receptor gene alleles in relation to different nuclear compartments. Our results show that olfactory neurons exhibit a singular nuclear architecture that is characterized by a large centrally localized constitutive heterochromatin block and by the presence of prominent facultative heterochromatin domains that are localized around this constitutive heterochromatin block. We also found that the two homologous alleles of a given odorant receptor gene are frequently segregated to separate compartments in the nucleus, with one of the alleles localized to the constitutive heterochromatin block and the other one localized to the more plastic facultative heterochromatin, or next to it. Our findings suggest that this nuclear compartmentalization may play a critical role in the expression of odorant receptor genes.

Chromosome positioning from activity-based segregation

Chromosomes within eukaryotic cell nuclei at interphase are not positioned at random, since gene-rich chromosomes are predominantly found towards the interior of the cell nucleus across a number of cell types. The physical mechanisms that could drive and maintain the spatial segregation of chromosomes based on gene density are unknown. Here, we identify a mechanism for such segregation, showing that the territorial organization of chromosomes, another central feature of nuclear organization, emerges naturally from our model. Our computer simulations indicate that gene density-dependent radial segregation of chromosomes arises as a robust consequence of differences in non-equilibrium activity across chromosomes. Arguing that such differences originate in the inhomogeneous distribution of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling and transcription machinery on each chromosome, we show that a variety of non-random positional distributions emerge through the interplay of such activity, nuclear shape and specific interactions of chromosomes with the nuclear envelope. Results from our model are in reasonable agreement with experimental data and we make a number of predictions that can be tested in experiments.

Significance of higher-order chromatin architecture for neuronal function and dysfunction

Recent studies in neurons indicate that the large-scale chromatin architectural framework, including chromosome territories or lamina-associated chromatin, undergoes dynamic changes that represent an emergent level of regulation of neuronal gene-expression. This phenomenon has been implicated in neuronal differentiation, long-term potentiation, seizures, and disorders of neural plasticity such as Rett syndrome and epilepsy.

Mechanisms of nuclear size regulation in model systems and cancer

Changes in nuclear size have long been used by cytopathologists as an important parameter to diagnose, stage, and prognose many cancers. Mechanisms underlying these changes and functional links between nuclear size and malignancy are largely unknown. Understanding mechanisms of nuclear size regulation and the physiological significance of proper nuclear size control will inform the interplay between altered nuclear size and oncogenesis. In this chapter we review what is known about molecular mechanisms of nuclear size control based on research in model experimental systems including yeast, Xenopus, Tetrahymena, Drosophila, plants, mice, and mammalian cell culture. We discuss how nuclear size is influenced by DNA ploidy, nuclear structural components, cytoplasmic factors and nucleocytoplasmic transport, the cytoskeleton, and the extracellular matrix. Based on these mechanistic insights, we speculate about how nuclear size might impact cell physiology and whether altered nuclear size could contribute to cancer development and progression. We end with some outstanding questions about mechanisms and functions of nuclear size regulation.

Closing the (nuclear) envelope on the genome: how nuclear lamins interact with promoters and modulate gene expression

The nuclear envelope shapes the functional organization of the nucleus. Increasing evidence indicates that one of its main components, the nuclear lamina, dynamically interacts with the genome, including the promoter region of specific genes. This seems to occur in a manner that accords developmental significance to these interactions. This essay addresses key issues raised by recent data on the association of nuclear lamins with the genome. We discuss how lamins interact with large chromatin domains and with spatially restricted regions on gene promoters. We address the relationship between these interactions, chromatin modifications and gene expression outcomes. Lamin-genome contacts are redistributed after cell division and during stem cell differentiation, with evidence of lineage specificity. Thus, we also speculate on a developmental role of lamin interactions with specific genes. Finally, we highlight how concepts arising from this recent work lay the foundations of future challenges and investigations.

Tissue specificity in the nuclear envelope supports its functional complexity

Nuclear envelope links to inherited disease gave the conundrum of how mutations in near-ubiquitous proteins can yield many distinct pathologies, each focused in different tissues. One conundrum-resolving hypothesis is that tissue-specific partner proteins mediate these pathologies. Such partner proteins may have now been identified with recent proteome studies determining nuclear envelope composition in different tissues. These studies revealed that the majority of the total nuclear envelope proteins are tissue restricted in their expression. Moreover, functions have been found for a number these tissue-restricted nuclear envelope proteins that fit with mechanisms proposed to explain how the nuclear envelope could mediate disease, including defects in mechanical stability, cell cycle regulation, signaling, genome organization, gene expression, nucleocytoplasmic transport, and differentiation. The wide range of functions to which these proteins contribute is consistent with not only their involvement in tissue-specific nuclear envelope disease pathologies, but also tissue evolution.

Nuclear lamins: making contacts with promoters

The nuclear lamina guards the genome and in many ways contributes to regulating nuclear function. Increasing evidence indicates that the lamina dynamically interacts with chromatin mainly through large repressive domains, and recent data suggest that at least some of the lamin-genome contacts may be developmentally significant. In an attempt to provide an additional meaning to lamin-genome contacts, a recent study characterized the association of gene promoters with A-type lamins in progenitor and differentiated cells. Here, we discuss how A-type lamins interact with spatially defined promoter regions, and the relationship between these interactions, associated chromatin marks and gene expression outputs. We discuss the impact of A-type lamins on nucleus-wide and local chromatin organization. We also address how lamin-promoter interactions are redistributed during differentiation of adipocyte progenitors into adipocytes. Finally, we propose a model of lineage-specific "unlocking" of developmentally regulated loci and its significance in cellular differentiation.

Lamin A/C-promoter interactions specify chromatin state-dependent transcription outcomes

The nuclear lamina is implicated in the organization of the eukaryotic nucleus. Association of nuclear lamins with the genome occurs through large chromatin domains including mostly, but not exclusively, repressed genes. How lamin interactions with regulatory elements modulate gene expression in different cellular contexts is unknown. We show here that in human adipose tissue stem cells, lamin A/C interacts with distinct spatially restricted subpromoter regions, both within and outside peripheral and intra-nuclear lamin-rich domains. These localized interactions are associated with distinct transcriptional outcomes in a manner dependent on local chromatin modifications. Down-regulation of lamin A/C leads to dissociation of lamin A/C from promoters and remodels repressive and permissive histone modifications by enhancing transcriptional permissiveness, but is not sufficient to elicit gene activation. Adipogenic differentiation resets a large number of lamin-genome associations globally and at subpromoter levels and redefines associated transcription outputs. We propose that lamin A/C acts as a modulator of local gene expression outcome through interaction with adjustable sites on promoters, and that these position-dependent transcriptional readouts may be reset upon differentiation.

Spatial localization of genes determined by intranuclear DNA fragmentation with the fusion proteins lamin KRED and histone KRED und visible light

The highly organized DNA architecture inside of the nuclei of cells is accepted in the scientific world. In the human genome about 3 billion nucleotides are organized as chromatin in the cell nucleus. In general, they are involved in gene regulation and transcription by histone modification. Small chromosomes are localized in a central nuclear position whereas the large chromosomes are peripherally positioned. In our experiments we inserted fusion proteins consisting of a component of the nuclear lamina (lamin B1) and also histone H2A, both combined with the light inducible fluorescence protein KillerRed (KRED). After activation, KRED generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) producing toxic effects and may cause cell death. We analyzed the spatial damage distribution in the chromatin after illumination of the cells with visible light. The extent of DNA damage was strongly dependent on its localization inside of nuclei. The ROS activity allowed to gain information about the location of genes and their functions via sequencing and data base analysis of the double strand breaks of the isolated DNA. A connection between the damaged gene sequences and some diseases was found.

PfSec13 is an unusual chromatin-associated nucleoporin of Plasmodium falciparum that is essential for parasite proliferation in human erythrocytes

In Plasmodium falciparum, the deadliest form of human malaria, the nuclear periphery has drawn much attention due to its role as a sub-nuclear compartment involved in virulence gene expression. Recent data have implicated components of the nuclear envelope in regulating gene expression in several eukaryotes. Special attention has been given to nucleoporins that compose the nuclear pore complex (NPC). However, very little is known about components of the nuclear envelope in Plasmodium parasites. Here we characterize PfSec13, an unusual nucleoporin of P. falciparum, which shows unique structural similarities suggesting that it is a fusion between Sec13 and Nup145C of yeast. Using super resolution fluorescence microscopy (3D-SIM) and in vivo imaging, we show that the dynamic localization of PfSec13 during parasites' intra-erythrocytic development corresponds with that of the NPCs and that these dynamics are associated with microtubules rather than with F-actin. In addition, PfSec13 does not co-localize with the heterochormatin markers HP1 and H3K9me3, suggesting euchromatic location of the NPCs. The proteins associated with PfSec13 indicate that this unusual Nup is involved in several cellular processes. Indeed, ultrastructural and chromatin immunoprecipitation analyses revealed that, in addition to the NPCs, PfSec13 is found in the nucleoplasm where it is associated with chromatin. Finally, we used peptide nucleic acids (PNA) to downregulate PfSec13 and show that it is essential for parasite proliferation in human erythrocytes.

Females and males contribute in opposite ways to the evolution of gene order in Drosophila

An intriguing association between the spatial layout of chromosomes within nuclei and the evolution of chromosome gene order was recently uncovered. Chromosome regions with conserved gene order in the Drosophila genus are larger if they interact with the inner side of the nuclear envelope in D. melanogaster somatic cells. This observation opens a new door to understand the evolution of chromosomes in the light of the dynamics of the spatial layout of chromosomes and the way double-strand breaks are repaired in D. melanogaster germ lines. Chromosome regions at the nuclear periphery in somatic cell nuclei relocate to more internal locations of male germ line cell nuclei, which might prefer a gene order-preserving mechanism to repair double-strand breaks. Conversely, chromosome regions at the nuclear periphery in somatic cells keep their location in female germ line cell nuclei, which might be inaccessible for cellular machinery that causes gene order-disrupting chromosome rearrangements. Thus, the gene order stability for genome regions at the periphery of somatic cell nuclei might result from the active repair of double-strand breaks using conservative mechanisms in male germ line cells, and the passive inaccessibility for gene order-disrupting factors at the periphery of nuclei of female germ line cells. In the present article, I find evidence consistent with a DNA break repair-based differential contribution of both D. melanogaster germ lines to the stability/disruption of gene order. The importance of germ line differences for the layout of chromosomes and DNA break repair strategies with regard to other genomic patterns is briefly discussed.

Novel higher-order epigenetic regulation of the Bdnf gene upon seizures

Studies in cultured cells have demonstrated the existence of higher-order epigenetic mechanisms, determining the relationship between expression of the gene and its position within the cell nucleus. It is unknown, whether such mechanisms operate in postmitotic, highly differentiated cell types, such as neurons in vivo. Accordingly, we examined whether the intranuclear positions of Bdnf and Trkb genes, encoding the major neurotrophin and its receptor respectively, change as a result of neuronal activity, and what functional consequences such movements may have. In a rat model of massive neuronal activation upon kainate-induced seizures we found that elevated neuronal expression of Bdnf is associated with its detachment from the nuclear lamina, and translocation toward the nucleus center. In contrast, the position of stably expressed Trkb remains unchanged after seizures. Our study demonstrates that activation-dependent architectural remodeling of the neuronal cell nucleus in vivo contributes to activity-dependent changes in gene expression in the brain.

Nuclear atrophy of retinal ganglion cells precedes the bax-dependent stage of apoptosis

PURPOSE

Retinal ganglion cells atrophy during the execution of the intrinsic apoptotic program. This process, which has been termed the apoptotic volume decrease (AVD) in other cell types, has not been well-characterized in ganglion cells.

METHODS

Acute optic nerve crush was used to examine neuronal atrophy in the ganglion cell layer in wild-type and Bax-deficient mice. Nuclear size was measured from retinal wholemounts. Heterochromatin formation was assessed using transmission electron microscopy, whereas histone H4 acetylation was monitored using immunofluoresence. Ganglion cell and retinal transcript abundance was measured using quantitative PCR.

RESULTS

Nuclear and soma sizes linearly correlated in both control and damaged retinas. Cells in wild-type mice exhibited nuclear atrophy within 1 day after optic nerve damage. Three days after crush, nuclear atrophy was restricted to ganglion cells identified by retrograde labeling, while amacrine cells also exhibited some atrophy by 5 days. Similar kinetics of nuclear atrophy were observed in cells deficient for the essential proapoptotic gene Bax. Bax-deficient cells also exhibited other nuclear changes common in wild-type cells, including the deacetylation of histones, formation of heterochromatin, and the silencing of ganglion cell-specific gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

Retinal ganglion cell somas and nuclei undergo the AVD in response to optic nerve damage. Atrophy is rapid and precedes the Bax-dependent committed step of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway.

LEM-4 promotes rapid dephosphorylation of BAF during mitotic exit

The transitions between the successive cell cycle stages depend on reversible protein phosphorylation events. The phosphorylation state of every protein within a cell is strictly determined by spatiotemporally controlled kinase and phosphatase activities. Nuclear disassembly and reassembly during open mitosis in higher eukaryotic cells is one such process that is tightly regulated by the reversible phosphorylation of key proteins. However, little is known about the regulation of these mitotic events. In particular, although kinase function during entry into mitosis is better studied, very little is known about how proteins are dephosphorylated to allow nuclear reformation at the end of mitosis. We have identified LEM‑4, a conserved protein of the nuclear envelope, as an essential coordinator of kinase and phosphatase activities during mitotic exit. Inhibition of VRK‑1 kinase and promotion of a PP2A phosphatase complex by LEM‑4 tightly regulate the phosphorylation state of BAF, an essential player of nuclear reformation at the end of mitosis. Here I offer extended comments on the contribution of LEM‑4 in the regulation of protein phosphorylation and nuclear reformation.

Building a nuclear envelope at the end of mitosis: coordinating membrane reorganization, nuclear pore complex assembly, and chromatin de-condensation

The metazoan nucleus is disassembled and re-built at every mitotic cell division. The nuclear envelope, including nuclear pore complexes, breaks down at the beginning of mitosis to accommodate the capture of massively condensed chromosomes by the spindle apparatus. At the end of mitosis, a nuclear envelope is newly formed around each set of segregating and de-condensing chromatin. We review the current understanding of the membrane restructuring events involved in the formation of the nuclear membrane sheets of the envelope, the mechanisms governing nuclear pore complex assembly and integration in the nascent nuclear membranes, and the regulated coordination of these events with chromatin de-condensation.

Shaping the nucleus: factors and forces

Take a look at a textbook illustration of a cell and you will immediately be able to locate the nucleus, which is often drawn as a spherical or ovoid shaped structure. But not all cells have such nuclei. In fact, some disease states are diagnosed by the presence of nuclei that have an abnormal shape or size. What defines nuclear shape and nuclear size, and how does nuclear geometry affect nuclear function? While the answer to the latter question remains largely unknown, significant progress has been made towards understanding the former. In this review, we provide an overview of the factors and forces that affect nuclear shape and size, discuss the relationship between ER structure and nuclear morphology, and speculate on the possible connection between nuclear size and its shape. We also note the many interesting questions that remain to be explored.

Disentangling the many layers of eukaryotic transcriptional regulation

Regulation of gene expression in eukaryotes is an extremely complex process. In this review, we break down several critical steps, emphasizing new data and techniques that have expanded current gene regulatory models. We begin at the level of DNA sequence where cis-regulatory modules (CRMs) provide important regulatory information in the form of transcription factor (TF) binding sites. In this respect, CRMs function as instructional platforms for the assembly of gene regulatory complexes. We discuss multiple mechanisms controlling complex assembly, including cooperative DNA binding, combinatorial codes, and CRM architecture. The second section of this review places CRM assembly in the context of nucleosomes and condensed chromatin. We discuss how DNA accessibility and histone modifications contribute to TF function. Lastly, new advances in chromosomal mapping techniques have provided increased understanding of intra- and interchromosomal interactions. We discuss how these topological maps influence gene regulatory models.

Knock-down of methyl CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) causes alterations in cell proliferation and nuclear lamins expression in mammalian cells

BACKGROUND

MeCP2 (CpG-binding protein 2) is a nuclear multifunctional protein involved in several cellular processes, like large-scale chromatin reorganization and architecture, and transcriptional regulation. In recent years, a non-neuronal role for MeCP2 has emerged in cell growth and proliferation. Mutations in the MeCP2 gene have been reported to determine growth disadvantages in cultured lymphocyte cells, and its functional ablation suppresses cell growth in glial cells and proliferation in mesenchymal stem cells and prostate cancer cells. MeCP2 interacts with lamin B receptor (LBR) and with Heterochromatin Protein 1 (HP1) at the nuclear envelope (NE), suggesting that it could be part of complexes involved in attracting heterochromatin at the nuclear periphery and in mediating gene silencing. The nuclear lamins, major components of the lamina, have a role in maintaining NE integrity, in orchestrating mitosis, in DNA replication and transcription, in regulation of mitosis and apoptosis and in providing anchoring sites for chromatin domains.In this work, we inferred that MeCP2 might have a role in nuclear envelope stability, thereby affecting the proliferation pattern of highly proliferating systems.

RESULTS

By performing knock-down (KD) of MeCP2 in normal murine (NIH-3 T3) and in human prostate transformed cells (PC-3 and LNCaP), we observed a strong proliferation decrease and a defect in the cell cycle progression, with accumulation of cells in S/G2M, without triggering a strong apoptotic and senescent phenotype. In these cells, KD of MeCP2 evidenced a considerable decrease of the levels of lamin A, lamin C, lamin B1 and LBR proteins. Moreover, by confocal analysis we confirmed the reduction of lamin A levels, but we also observed an alteration in the shape of the nuclear lamina and an irregular nuclear rim.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results that indicate reduced levels of NE components, are consistent with a hypothesis that the deficiency of MeCP2 might cause the lack of a key "bridge" function that links the peripheral heterochromatin to the NE, thereby causing an incorrect assembly of the NE itself, together with a decreased cell proliferation and viability.

Preserving the genome by regulating chromatin association with the nuclear envelope

The nuclear envelope compartmentalizes chromatin within eukaryotic cells and influences diverse cellular functions by controlling nucleocytoplasmic trafficking. Recent evidence has revealed the importance of interactions between chromatin and nuclear envelope components in the maintenance of genome integrity. Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), traditionally regarded as transport gateways, have emerged as specialized hubs involved in organizing genome architecture, influencing DNA topology, and modulating DNA repair. Here, we review the interplay between the nuclear envelope, chromatin and DNA damage checkpoint pathways, and discuss the physiological and pathological implications of these associations.

Mechanical regulation of nuclear structure and function

Mechanical loading induces both nuclear distortion and alterations in gene expression in a variety of cell types. Mechanotransduction is the process by which extracellular mechanical forces can activate a number of well-studied cytoplasmic signaling cascades. Inevitably, such signals are transduced to the nucleus and induce transcription factor-mediated changes in gene expression. However, gene expression also can be regulated through alterations in nuclear architecture, providing direct control of genome function. One putative transduction mechanism for this phenomenon involves alterations in nuclear architecture that result from the mechanical perturbation of the cell. This perturbation is associated with direct mechanical strain or osmotic stress, which is transferred to the nucleus. This review describes the current state of knowledge relating the nuclear architecture and the transfer of mechanical forces to the nucleus mediated by the cytoskeleton, the nucleoskeleton, and the LINC (linker of the nucleoskeleton and cytoskeleton) complex. Moreover, remodeling of the nucleus induces alterations in nuclear stiffness, which may be associated with cell differentiation. These phenomena are discussed in relation to the potential influence of nuclear architecture-mediated mechanoregulation of transcription and cell fate.