TiO2 photocatalysis: Design and applications

Photocatalytic activity of TiO₂ nanoparticles synthesized in presence of ammonium hexafluorosilicate

A series of silicon incorporated TiO2 with anatase crystalline phase were prepared via sol-gel using ammonium hexafluorosilicate (AHFS). The synthesized products were characterized using X-ray diffraction, FTIR, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectrophotometry (DRS), energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX) and BET surface area measurement. Presence of Si-O-Ti bonds is revealed based on the XPS results. The products were tested for their activity as photocatalysts for degradation of congo red as a prob molecule. The 20% AHFS incorporation displayed the highest photocatalytic activity. This adequate amount of AHFS was beneficial for transferring photogenerated electron and reducing the recombination of electron-holes.

Visible light photoactivity of Polypropylene coated Nano-TiO2 for dyes degradation in water

The use of Polypropylene as support material for nano-TiO2 photocatalyst in the photodegradation of Alizarin Red S in water solutions under the action of visible light was investigated. The optimization of TiO2 pastes preparation using two commercial TiO2, Aeroxide P-25 and Anatase, was performed and a green low-cost dip-coating procedure was developed. Scanning electron microscopy, Atomic Force Microscopy and X-Ray Diffraction analysis were used in order to obtain morphological and structural information of as-prepared TiO2 on support material. Equilibrium and kinetics aspects in the adsorption and successive photodegradation of Alizarin Red S, as reference dye, are described using polypropylene-TiO2 films in the Visible/TiO2/water reactor showing efficient dyes degradation.

Characterization of the interactions within fine particle mixtures in highly concentrated suspensions for advanced particle processing

This paper aims to summarize recent investigations into the dispersion of fine particles, and the characterization of their interactions, in concentrated suspensions. This summary will provide a better understanding of the current status of this research, and will provide useful feedback for advanced particle processing. Such processes include the fabrication of functional nanostructures and the sustainable beneficiation of complex ores. For example, there has been increasing demand for complex ore utilization due to the noticeable decrease in the accessibility of high grade and easily extractable ores. In order to maintain the sustainable use of mineral resources, the effective beneficiation of complex ores is urgently required. It can be successfully achieved only with selective particle/mineral dispersion/liberation and the assistance of mineralogical and particle characterization.

Nitrogen-fluorine co-doped titania inverse opals for enhanced solar light driven photocatalysis

Three dimensionally ordered nitrogen-fluorine (N-F) co-doped TiO2 inverse opals (IOs) were fabricated by templating with polystyrene (PS) colloidal photonic crystals (CPCs) by infiltration. During preparation, the TiO2 precursor was treated with a mixture of nitric acid and trifluoroacetic acid to facilitate N-F co-doping into the TiO2 lattice. Enhanced solar light absorption was observed in the samples as a consequence of the red shift in the electronic band gap of TiO2 due to N-F co-doping. The photonic band gap (PBG) of these TiO2 IO films was tuned by varying the sphere size of the PS CPC templates. The as-prepared N-F co-doped TiO2 IO films were used as photocatalysts for the degradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) dye under solar light irradiation. A significant enhancement in the photocatalytic activity was observed in N-F co-doped TiO2 IO films prepared using PS spheres of 215 nm as a template, with the red edge of the PBG closer to the electronic band gap (EBG) of TiO2. 100% of the dye molecules were degraded within 2 minutes under direct solar irradiation, which is one of the fastest reaction times ever reported for RhB degradation in the presence of TiO2 photocatalysts. The N-F co-doped TiO2 IO film prepared using PS of 460 nm with its PBG centered at 695 nm also showed good photocatalytic activity. It was found that the IO films displayed improved photocatalytic activity in comparison to ordinary nanocrystalline (nc)-TiO2 films. The enhancement could be attributed to the bandgap scattering effect and the slow photon effect, leading to a significant improvement in solar light harvesting.

Femtosecond X-ray absorption study of electron localization in photoexcited anatase TiO2

Transition metal oxides are among the most promising solar materials, whose properties rely on the generation, transport and trapping of charge carriers (electrons and holes). Identifying the latter’s dynamics at room temperature requires tools that combine elemental and structural sensitivity, with the atomic scale resolution of time (femtoseconds, fs). Here, we use fs Ti K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) upon 3.49 eV (355 nm) excitation of aqueous colloidal anatase titanium dioxide nanoparticles to probe the trapping dynamics of photogenerated electrons. We find that their localization at Titanium atoms occurs in <300 fs, forming Ti³⁺ centres, in or near the unit cell where the electron is created. We conclude that electron localization is due to its trapping at pentacoordinated sites, mostly present in the surface shell region. The present demonstration of fs hard X-ray absorption capabilities opens the way to a detailed description of the charge carrier dynamics in transition metal oxides.

Optimization of photocatalytic degradation of meloxicam using titanium dioxide nanoparticles: application to pharmaceutical wastewater analysis, treatment, and cleaning validation

Meloxicam is a commonly prescribed nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug with analgesic and fever-reducing effects. In this study, photocatalytic degradation of meloxicam in the presence of TiO2 nanoparticles (TiO2NP) was optimized and applied for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. A validated stability-indicating orthogonal testing protocol (reversed-phase (RP)-HPLC and capillary zone electrophoresis) was developed and validated for monitoring of meloxicam concentration in the presence of its photodegradation products. Fractional factorial design was employed in order to investigate the effects of pH, irradiation time, UV light intensity, TiO2NP loading, and initial meloxicam concentration on the efficiency of the process. The light intensity was found as the most significant parameter followed by irradiation time and concentration, respectively. The most influencing interactions were noted between irradiation time-concentration and irradiation time-light intensity. The kinetics of meloxicam degradation was investigated at the optimum set of experimental conditions. The protocol was successfully applied for treatment of incurred water samples collected during various cleaning validation cycles. A percentage degradation of 77.34 ± 0.02 % was achieved upon irradiation of samples containing 64.57 ± 0.09 μg/mL with UV light (1012 μW/cm(2), 8 h) in the presence of 0.4 mg/mL TiO2NP at pH 9.0 ± 0.05. Treatment of wastewaters collected during the cleaning validation of each product separately rather than the combined waste should result in a significant improvement in the economics of pharmaceutical wastewater treatment. This could be attributed to the relatively small waste volumes and the ability to tailor the experimental conditions to achieve maximum efficiency.

Application of nano TiO2 modified hollow fiber membranes in algal membrane bioreactors for high-density algae cultivation and wastewater polishing

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) hollow fiber membranes with nano-TiO2 (5% of PVDF by mass, average size = 25 nm) additives were fabricated and applied for high-density algae (Chlorella vulgaris) cultivation. At the average light intensity of 121 μmol/m(2)/s, the algal membrane bioreactors (A-MBR) operated at a hydraulic retention time of 0.5d and an average solids retention time of 25d had an average algae biomass concentration of 2350 ± 74 mg/L (in COD units) and algal biomass production rate of 6.5 ± 0.1g/m(2)/d. The A-MBRs removed an average of 78% of phosphorus from the wastewater at the initial total phosphorus concentrations ranging from 3.5 to 8.6 mg/L. The nano TiO2-embedded membranes had improved surface hydrophilicity with its total resistance about 50% lower than that of the control. This study demonstrated that PVDF/TiO2 nanocomposite membranes had a better antifouling property for high-density algae cultivation and wastewater polishing.

Imidazolium-Based Ionic Liquids in Water: Assessment of Photocatalytic and Photochemical Transformation

The photoinduced transformation of two ionic liquids, 1-methylimidazolium hydrogensulfate (HMIM) and 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium hydrogensulfate (EMIM), was investigated under photocatalytic conditions in the presence of irradiated TiO2. We monitored substrate disappearance, transformation products (TPs), degree of mineralization, and toxicity of the irradiated systems. Acute toxicity measures suggested in both cases the occurrence of more toxic TPs than the parent molecules. A total of five TPs were detected by HPLC-HRMS from HMIM and nine from EMIM. Complete mineralization and stoichiometric release of nitrogen was achieved for both compounds within 4 h of irradiation. The photochemical transformation kinetics and pathways in surface waters (direct photolysis and indirect photoreactions) were studied for EMIM, to assess its persistence in sunlit water bodies such as rivers or lakes. Environmental phototransformation would be dominated by direct photolysis, with half-life times of up to one month under fine-weather conditions.

TiO2 hybrid photocatalytic systems: impact of adsorption and photocatalytic performance

For the past 40 years, titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanomaterials have attracted immense attention because of their potential applications in the photodegradation of organic pollutants, photocatalytic water splitting for H2 generation, and dye-sensitized solar cells. Despite the fact that the potential applications of TiO2 nanoparticles are ubiquitous, they are not problem free, examples include a large interfacial area that causes slow charge carrier transport, a wide optical band gap that leads to limited applications using solar light, and single-phase and nanoscales features that induce fast recombination of photo-reduced carriers. Therefore, this review highlights the development associated with the adsorption photocatalysis hybrid system for treating wastewater. The immobilization of TiO2 photocatalysts in metal oxide, carbon, and ceramic materials to form TiO2 hybrid systems could prevent the problem of particle recovery, adsorption capacity, and the separation process. Such hybrid systems require significant effort of optimizing the specific surface area-to-volume ratio of the supported photocatalysts with its photocatalytic activities.

Low-Temperature Fabrication of Mesoporous Titanium Dioxide Thin Films with Tunable Refractive Indices for One-Dimensional Photonic Crystals and Sensors on Rigid and Flexible Substrates

Highly transparent mesoporous titanium dioxide (TiO2; anatase) thin films were prepared at room temperature via ultraviolet (UV) irradiation of hybrid polymer-TiO2 nanoparticle thin films. This approach utilized a UV-curable polymer in conjunction with the photocatalytic activity of TiO2 to form and degrade the organic component of the composite films in one step, producing films with well-controlled porosity and refractive index. By adjustment of the loading of TiO2 nanoparticles in the host polymer, the refractive index was tuned between 1.53 and 1.73. Facile control of these properties and mild processing conditions was leveraged to fabricate robust one-dimensional photonic crystals (Bragg mirrors) consisting entirely of TiO2 on silicon and flexible poly(ethylene terephthalate) substrates. The mesoporous Bragg mirrors were shown to be effective chemical vapor sensors with strong optical responses.

Controllable Synthesis and Tunable Photocatalytic Properties of Ti(3+)-doped TiO2

Photocatalysts show great potential in environmental remediation and water splitting using either artificial or natural light. Titanium dioxide (TiO2)-based photocatalysts are studied most frequently because they are stable, non-toxic, readily available, and highly efficient. However, the relatively wide band gap of TiO2 significantly limits its use under visible light or solar light. We herein report a facile route for controllable synthesis of Ti(3+)-doped TiO2 with tunable photocatalytic properties using a hydrothermal method with varying amounts of reductant, i.e., sodium borohydride (NaBH4). The resulting TiO2 showed color changes from light yellow, light grey, to dark grey with the increasing amount of NaBH4. The present method can controllably and effectively reduce Ti(4+) on the surface of TiO2 and induce partial transformation of anatase TiO2 to rutile TiO2, with the evolution of nanoparticles into hierarchical structures attributable to a high pressure and strong alkali environment in the synthesis atmosphere; in this way, the photocatalytic activity of Ti(3+)-doped TiO2 under visible-light can be tuned. The as-developed strategy may open up a new avenue for designing and functionalizing TiO2 materials for enhancing visible light absorption, narrowing band gap, and improving photocatalytic activity.

Anatase titania synthesised at low temperature: recent breakthroughs

To overcome the limitations of conventional techniques that employ high-temperature calcinations to prepare nanosized anatase titania (TiO2), and thus find effective methods for low-temperature methods to synthesise nanosized TiO2 with high catalytic activity, has been one of the most challenging aspects in the photocatalyst field. In this article, the recent progress in low-temperature synthesis of nanosized anatase TiO2 is reviewed. The advances in this field are discussed in the light of the progress in the development of suitable synthetic methods. Particular emphasis is placed on the special conditions and demands to prepare uniform and stable anatase nanostructures at low temperature. The principles, reactions, synthesising procedures as well as the advantages and disadvantages of reported methods are presented. Furthermore, to overcome the intrinsic shortcomings of pure nanosized TiO2 as photocatalyst, that is, the rather low quantum efficiency and the incapability of utilising visible light, this review is also extended to the technologies of preparing TiO2 composites such as ion-doping, rare metal deposit and composite semiconductors. Finally the developing trends and the potential focus of future research in this field are prospected.

Tricrystalline TiO2 with enhanced photocatalytic activity and durability for removing volatile organic compounds from indoor air

It is important to develop efficient and economic techniques for removing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in indoor air. Heterogeneous TiO2-based semiconductors are a promising technology for achieving this goal. Anatase/brookite/rutile tricrystalline TiO2 with mesoporous structure was synthesized by a low-temperature hydrothermal route in the presence of HNO3. The obtained samples were characterized by X-ray diffraction and N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm. The photocatalytic activity was evaluated by photocatalytic decomposition of toluene in air under UV light illumination. The results show that tricrystalline TiO2 exhibited higher photocatalytic activity and durability toward gaseous toluene than bicrystalline TiO2, due to the synergistic effects of high surface area, uniform mesoporous structure and junctions among mixed phases. The tricrystalline TiO2 prepared at RHNO3=0.8, containing 80.7% anatase, 15.6% brookite and 3.7% rutile, exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity, about 3.85-fold higher than that of P25. The high activity did not significantly degrade even after five reuse cycles. In conclusion, it is expected that our study regarding gas-phase degradation of toluene over tricrystalline TiO2 will enrich the chemistry of the TiO2-based materials as photocatalysts for environmental remediation and stimulate further research interest on this intriguing topic.

Kinetic study of the heterogeneous photocatalysis of porous nanocrystalline TiO₂ assemblies using a continuous random walk simulation

The continuous time random walk (CTRW) simulation was used to study the photocatalytic kinetics of nanocrystalline (nc)-TiO2 assemblies in this research. nc-TiO2 assemblies, such as nc-TiO2 porous films and nc-TiO2 hierarchical structures, are now widely used in photocatalysis. The nc-TiO2 assemblies have quasi-disordered networks consisting of many tiny nanoparticles, so the charge transport within them can be studied by CTRW simulation. We considered the experimental facts that the holes can be quickly trapped and transferred to organic species just after photogeneration, and the electrons transfer to O2 slowly and accumulate in the conduction band of TiO2, which is believed to be the rate-limiting process of the photocatalysis under low light intensity and low organic concentration. Due to the existence of numerous traps, the electron transport within the nc-TiO2 assemblies follows a multi-trapping (MT) mechanism, which significantly limits the electron diffusion speed. The electrons need to undergo several steps of MT transport before transferring to oxygen, so it is highly important that the electron transport in nc-TiO2 networks is determined for standard photocatalytic reactions. Based on the MT transport model, the transient decays of photocurrents during the photocatalytic oxidation of formic acid were studied by CTRW simulation, and are in good accordance with experiments. The steady state photocatalysis was also simulated. The effects of organic concentration, light intensity, temperature, and nc-TiO2 crystallinity on the photocatalytic kinetics were investigated, and were also consistent with the experimental results. Due to the agreement between the simulation and the experiments for both the transient and the steady state photocatalysis, the MT charge transport should be an important mechanism that controls the kinetics of recombination and photocatalysis in nc-TiO2 assemblies. Also, our research provides a new methodology to study the photocatalytic dynamics from the random event viewpoint, which can be revised to investigate the kinetic processes of other kinds of material.