Wnt/beta-catenin signaling in mesenchymal progenitors controls osteoblast and chondrocyte differentiation during vertebrate skeletogenesis

The Wnt-inducible transcription factor Twist1 inhibits chondrogenesis

Wnt signaling is essential for many developmental processes, including skeletogenesis. To investigate the effects of Wnt signaling during skeletogenesis we studied the effects of Wnt on cultured chondrocytic cells and differentiating limb-bud mesenchyme. We showed that Wnt3a strongly repressed chondrogenesis and chondrocyte gene expression. Canonical Wnt signaling was responsible for the repression of differentiation, as evidenced by results showing that inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase 3 or expression of beta-catenin caused similar repression of differentiation. Significantly, we showed that the transcription repressor Twist1 is induced by canonical Wnt signaling. Expression of Twist1 strongly inhibited chondrocyte gene expression and short hairpin RNA knockdown of Twist1 transcript levels caused increased expression of the chondrocyte-specific genes aggrecan and type II collagen. Interestingly, Twist1 interfered with BMP2-induced expression of aggrecan and type II collagen expression and knockdown of Twist1 augmented BMP2-induced aggrecan and type II collagen expression. These data support the conclusions that Twist1 contributes to the repression of chondrogenesis and chondrocyte gene expression resulting from canonical Wnt signaling and that Twist1 interferes with BMP-dependent signaling.

Mesenchymal stem cell therapy to rebuild cartilage

Disorders affecting cartilage touch almost the whole population and are one of the leading causes of invalidity in adults. To repair cartilage, therapeutic approaches initially focused on the implantation of autologous chondrocytes, but this technique proved unsatisfactory because of the limited number of chondrocytes obtained at harvest. The discovery that several adult human tissues contain mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) capable of differentiating into chondrocytes raised the possibility of injecting MSCs to repair cartilages. The important data published recently on the factors controlling chondrocyte commitment must be thoroughly considered to make further progress towards this therapeutic approach. The potential application of MSC therapy provides new hope for the development of innovative treatments for the repair of cartilage disorders.

Wnt signalling pathway: a new target for the treatment of osteoporosis

The prevention and treatment of osteoporosis traditionally involves the use of antiresorptive agents that target osteoclast function. Antiresorptive therapy is not associated with a significant increase in bone mass and, thus, only partially reduces the risk of fractures. For that reason, the search for anabolic agents, which target osteoblast function, represents an urgent medical need. The first approved bone anabolic drug for the treatment of osteoporosis was teriparatide (human parathyroid hormone 1-34). Recently, both human genetics and animal studies have pointed out the role of the Wnt/LRP5 pathway as a major regulator of bone mass accrual. Wnts are secreted glycoproteins that bind to receptor complexes including low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein (LRP)-5/6 and Frizzled proteins. A subsequent intracellular cascade of events stabilises beta-catenin, leading to its translocation into the nucleus where, associated with Tcf/Lef transcription factors, it triggers gene expression. The existence of many potential pharmacological targets in this pathway makes it attractive for bone anabolic drug discovery.

Canonical WNT signaling promotes osteogenesis by directly stimulating Runx2 gene expression

Both activating and null mutations of proteins required for canonical WNT signaling have revealed the importance of this pathway for normal skeletal development. However, tissue-specific transcriptional mechanisms through which WNT signaling promotes the differentiation of bone-forming cells have yet to be identified. Here, we address the hypothesis that canonical WNT signaling and the bone-related transcription factor RUNX2/CBFA1/AML3 are functionally linked components of a pathway required for the onset of osteoblast differentiation. Our findings show that, in bone of the SFRP1 (secreted frizzled-related protein-1)-null mouse, which exhibits activated WNT signaling and a high bone mass phenotype, there is a significant increase in expression of T-cell factor (TCF)-1, Runx2, and the RUNX2 target gene osteocalcin. We demonstrate by mutational analysis that a functional TCF regulatory element responsive to canonical WNT signaling resides in the promoter of the Runx2 gene (-97 to -93). By chromatin immunoprecipitation, recruitment of beta-catenin and TCF1 to the endogenous Runx2 gene is shown. Coexpression of TCF1 with canonical WNT proteins resulted in a 2-5-fold activation of Runx2 promoter activity and a 7-8-fold induction of endogenous mRNA in mouse pluripotent mesenchymal and osteoprogenitor cells. This enhancement was abrogated by SFRP1. Taken together, our results provide evidence for direct regulation of Runx2 by canonical WNT signaling and suggest that Runx2 is a target of beta-catenin/TCF1 for the stimulation of bone formation. We propose that WNT/TCF1 signaling, like bone morphogenetic protein/transforming growth factor-beta signaling, activates Runx2 gene expression in mesenchymal cells for the control of osteoblast differentiation and skeletal development.

Wnt/β-Catenin—A Canonical Tale of Cell-Fate Choice in the Vertebrate Skeleton

Three exciting papers in this issue of Developmental Cell provide new insights into the regulation of chondrocytic, osteoblastic, and osteoclastic differentiation during skeletal development and postnatal growth. The studies demonstrate that Wnt/beta-catenin signaling represents both a mechanism in mesenchymal precursor cells for selecting between chondrocytic and osteoblastic fates as well as a mechanism in osteoblasts for stimulating the production of an inhibitor of osteoclast formation.

The control of chondrogenesis

Chondrogenesis is the earliest phase of skeletal development, involving mesenchymal cell recruitment and migration, condensation of progenitors, and chondrocyte differentiation, and maturation and resulting in the formation of cartilage and bone during endochondral ossification. This process is controlled exquisitely by cellular interactions with the surrounding matrix, growth and differentiation factors, and other environmental factors that initiate or suppress cellular signaling pathways and transcription of specific genes in a temporal-spatial manner. Vertebrate limb development is controlled by interacting patterning systems involving prominently the fibroblast growth factor (FGF), bone morphogenetic protein (BMP), and hedgehog pathways. Both positive and negative signaling kinases and transcription factors, such as Sox9 and Runx2, and interactions among them determine whether the differentiated chondrocytes remain within cartilage elements in articular joints or undergo hypertrophic maturation prior to ossification. The latter process requires extracellular matrix remodeling and vascularization controlled by mechanisms that are not understood completely. Recent work has revealed novel roles for mediators such as GADD45beta, transcription factors of the Dlx, bHLH, leucine zipper, and AP-1 families, and the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway that interact at different stages during chondrogenesis.