Late valvular and other cardiac diseases after different doses of mediastinal radiotherapy for Hodgkin disease in children and adolescents: report from the longitudinal GPOH follow-up project of the German-Austrian DAL-HD studies

Survivors of childhood and adolescent cancer: life-long risks and responsibilities

Survival rates for most paediatric cancers have improved at a remarkable pace over the past four decades. In developed countries, cure is now the probable outcome for most children and adolescents who are diagnosed with cancer: their 5-year survival rate approaches 80%. However, the vast majority of these cancer survivors will have at least one chronic health condition by 40 years of age. The burden of responsibility to understand the long-term morbidity and mortality that is associated with currently successful treatments must be borne by many, including the research and health care communities, survivor advocacy groups, and governmental and policy-making entities.

Review and meta-analysis of incidence and clinical predictors of anthracycline cardiotoxicity

The management of individual patients requiring anthracyclines remains challenging because uncertainty persists on predictors of cardiotoxicity. We aimed to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on incidence and predictors of anthracycline chemotherapy in patients with cancer. Databases were searched for pertinent studies. Meta-analytic pooling with random-effects methods was performed for incidence estimates, while relying on descriptive statistics for prevalence and strength of association of predictors. From 16,054 retrieved citations, 18 studies reporting on 49,017 patients with cancer were included, with 22,815 treated with anthracyclines. After a median follow-up of 9 years, clinically overt cardiotoxicity occurred in 6% (95% confidence interval 3% to 9%), whereas subclinical cardiotoxicity developed in 18% (95% confidence interval 12% to 24%). Appraisal of independent risk factors of cardiotoxicity showed that cumulative anthracycline dose was most consistently reported as an accurate and robust predictor of cardiotoxicity, with an acceptable prognostic role also for chest radiotherapy, African-American ethnicity, very young or very old age, diabetes, hypertension, very high or very low body weight, or severe co-morbidities. In conclusion, despite ongoing refinements in chemotherapy regimens, anthracyclines still pose a significant risk of cardiotoxicity, especially in those requiring a high cumulative dose or chest radiotherapy.

Cardiovascular effects after low-dose exposure and radiotherapy: what research is needed?

The authors of this report met at the Head Quarter of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Vienna, Austria, on 2-4 July 2012, for intensive discussions of an abundance of original publications on new epidemiological studies on cardiovascular effects after low-dose exposure and radiotherapy and radiobiological experiments as well as several comprehensive reviews that were published since the previous meeting by experts sponsored by the IAEA in June 2006. The data necessitated a re-evaluation of the situation with special emphasis on the consequences current experimental and clinical data may have for clinical oncology/radiotherapy and radiobiological research. The authors jointly arrived at the conclusions and recommendations presented here.

Radiation-induced cardiovascular disease

OPINION STATEMENT

Thoracic radiation remains an effective treatment for many types of neoplasms. The clinical benefit of radiation therapy on cancer mortality is counterbalanced by an increased risk of cardiovascular events in survivors. The long-term cardiovascular sequelae of thoracic radiation include premature coronary artery disease, valvular disease, pericardial disease, myocardial disease with systolic and especially diastolic dysfunction, and conduction system abnormalities. Radiation heart disease progresses over time and may manifest decades after the initial exposure. Since the risk of cardiac complications is significantly increased following chest irradiation, appropriate screening and long-term cardiac follow-up of these patients is essential. This article will summarize the pathophysiological features, clinical presentations, and current recommendations for screening and prevention of the wide spectrum of radiation induced cardiovascular disease.

Effective childhood cancer treatment: the impact of large scale clinical trials in Germany and Austria

In Germany and Austria, more than 90% of pediatric cancer patients are enrolled into nationwide disease-specific first-line clinical trials or interim registries. Essential components are a pediatric cancer registry and centralized reference laboratories, imaging review, and tumor board assistance. The five-year overall survival rate in countries where such infrastructures are established has improved from <20% before 1950 to >80% since 1995. Today, treatment intensity is tailored to the individual patient's risk to provide the highest chances of survival while minimizing deleterious late effects. Multicenter clinical trials are internationalized and serve as platforms for further improvements by novel drugs and biologicals.

Controversies in the role of radiotherapy in the treatment of pediatric Hodgkin lymphoma

Hodgkin lymphoma in children is a highly curable malignancy with current approaches utilizing combined modality therapy and a risk-adapted approach. The combination of anthracyclines, bleomycin, and radiotherapy, as well as other alkylating agents, are significant risk factors for secondary malignancies and cardiopulmonary toxicity. Therefore, current strategies aim to optimize cure rates while minimizing late effects. The role of radiotherapy has been examined in recent pediatric trials, with varying results. However, they provide evidence, as a whole, for the omission of radiotherapy for a subgroup of patients, without compromising outcomes.

Proton versus photon radiation therapy for patients with high-risk neuroblastoma: the need for a customized approach

BACKGROUND

Proton therapy for treatment for high-risk neuroblastoma may offer sparing of organs at risk (OAR) when compared to intensity-modulated X-ray therapy (IMXT).

PROCEDURE

Double-scattered proton plans and IMXT plans delivering 2,160 cGy to the primary tumor site and other residual disease were developed for 13 consecutive HR-NBL patients. Radiation doses to target volumes and OAR were calculated to determine the optimal modality for each.

RESULTS

All patients received radiation (5/13 ≥ 2 sites). No patient has experienced local recurrence or clinical organ toxicity. Coverage was excellent using both protons and IMXT: median % dose delivered to 95% clinical target volume was 99% and 100%, respectively. For nine patients with lateralized disease, proton therapy offered sparing of the contralateral kidney both with regard to median dose and dose to 20% (median <1 cGy vs. 362 cGy, P = 0.01; median 100 cGy vs. 634 cGy, P = 0.02, respectively). Proton therapy did not reduce ipsilateral kidney dose, and for 2 select patients with lateralized disease IMXT improved overall bilateral renal sparing. Proton therapy improved median bowel (median 33 cGy vs. 590 cGy, P = 0.01), total body (median <1 cGy vs. 30 cGy, P = 0.15), and liver dose (median <1 cGy vs. 529, P < 0.001). When chest RT was required, proton therapy decreased median heart dose and mean lung dose.

CONCLUSIONS

For most patients (11/13), proton therapy offered the optimal combination of target coverage and organ sparing, and is a feasible treatment for HR-NBL. We recommend a customized approach with careful evaluation of renal dosimetry; IMXT may be preferred for select patients.

Evaluation of radiation-induced myocardial damage using iodine-123 β-methyl-iodophenyl pentadecanoic acid scintigraphy

We evaluated radiation-induced myocardial damage using iodine-123 β-methyl-iodophenyl pentadecanoic acid (I-123 BMIPP) scintigraphy. Between May 2010 and April 2011 we performed I-123 BMIPP scintigraphy for patients who had maintained complete response to curative radiotherapy (RT) for esophageal cancer for more than six months. We compared the area of the myocardium in the RT fields with that of reduced I-123 BMIPP uptake using a 15-segment model that is based on axial computed tomography (CT) images. We classified the segments into three categories: segments receiving 40 Gy (Segment 40 Gy), segments receiving 60 Gy (Segment 60 Gy) and segments out of the radiation fields (Segment 0 Gy). A segment with reduced uptake in the RT fields was defined as positive. A total of 510 segments in 34 patients were used for analysis. The median interval from completion of RT to I-123 BMIPP scintigraphy was 22 months (range, 6-103 months). The numbers of Segment 0 Gy, Segment 40 Gy and Segment 60 Gy were 324, 133 and 53, respectively. Reduced uptake was detected in 42.9% (57/133) of Segment 40 Gy, 67.9% (36/53) of Segment 60 Gy and 13.3% (43/324) of Segment 0 Gy. The odds ratios of 40 Gy and 60 Gy compared with regions out of the RT fields were 5.2 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 3.7-7.4) and 15.4 (95% CI: 6.9-34.6), respectively. Reduced myocardial I-123 BMIPP uptake in RT fields, suggesting RT-induced myocardial damage, was frequently observed. I-123 BMIPP myocardial scintigraphy may be useful for identifying RT-induced myocardial damage.

Understanding cardiovascular injury after treatment for cancer: an overview of current uses and future directions of cardiovascular magnetic resonance

While cancer-free survival has improved over the past 20 years for many individuals with prostate, renal, breast, and hematologic malignancies, the increasingly recognized prevalence of cardiovascular (CV) events in cancer survivors has been an unintended consequence of many of the therapies that have improved these survival rates. The increase in CV events threatens to offset the improvement in cancer related survival. As a result, there is an emerging need to develop methods to identify those individuals treated for cancer at increased risk of cardiovascular events. With its inherent ability to characterize myocardial tissue and identify both cardiac and vascular dysfunction, cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has the potential to identify both subclinical and early clinical CV injury before the development of an overt catastrophic event such as a myocardial infarction, stroke, or premature cardiac death. Early identification provides an opportunity for the implementation of primary prevention strategies to prevent such events, thereby improving overall cancer survivorship and quality of life. This article reviews the etiology of CV events associated with cancer therapy and the unique potential of CMR to provide early diagnosis of subclinical CV injury related to the administration of these therapies.

Estimated risk of cardiovascular disease and secondary cancers with modern highly conformal radiotherapy for early-stage mediastinal Hodgkin lymphoma

BACKGROUND

Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) survivors have an increased morbidity and mortality from secondary cancers and cardiovascular disease (CD). We evaluate doses with involved node radiotherapy (INRT) delivered as 3D conformal radiotherapy (3D CRT), volumetric modulated arc therapy (VMAT), or proton therapy (PT), compared with the extensive Mantle Field (MF).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

For 27 patients with early-stage, mediastinal HL, treated with chemotherapy and INRT delivered as 3D CRT (30 Gy), we simulated an MF (36 Gy), INRT-VMAT and INRT-PT (30 Gy). Dose to the heart, lungs, and breasts, estimated risks of CD, lung (LC) and breast cancer (BC), and corresponding life years lost (LYL) were compared.

RESULTS

3D CRT, VMAT or PT significantly lower the dose to the heart, lungs and breasts and provide lower risk estimates compared with MF, but with substantial patient variability. The risk of CD is not significantly different for 3D CRT versus VMAT. The risk of LC and BC is highest with VMAT. For LYL, PT is the superior modern technique.

CONCLUSIONS

In early-stage, mediastinal HL modern radiotherapy provides superior results compared with MF. However, there is no single best radiotherapy technique for HL-the decision should be made at the individual patient level.

Treatment of Children and Adolescents With Hodgkin Lymphoma Without Radiotherapy for Patients in Complete Remission After Chemotherapy: Final Results of the Multinational Trial GPOH-HD95

Purpose

To minimize the risk of late effects in pediatric Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) by omitting radiotherapy (RT) in patients in complete remission (CR) after chemotherapy and reducing the standard radiation dose to 20 Gy in patients in incomplete remission.

Patients and Methods

Between 1995 and 2001, 925 patients with classical HL (cHL) were registered from seven European countries in German Society of Pediatric Oncology and Hematology Hodgkin Lymphoma Trial 95. Patients in treatment group 1 (TG1; early stages) received two cycles of vincristine, prednisone, procarbazine, and doxorubicin or vincristine, prednisone, etoposide, and doxorubicin chemotherapy; additional two or four cycles of cyclophosphamide, vincristine, prednisone, and procarbazine were added in TG2 (intermediate stages) or TG3 (advanced stages), respectively. Patients in CR (assessed by computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging) did not undergo RT. Those with tumor volume reduction more than 75% received reduced involved-field RT with 20 Gy and an additional 10- or 15-Gy boost only for larger residuals.

Results

Rates of overall survival, progression-free survival (PFS), and event-free survival at 10 years were (± SE) 96.3% ± 0.6%, 88.2% ± 1.1%, and 85.4% ± 1.3%, respectively. PFS for TG1 patients without or with RT was 97.0% ± 2.1% versus 92.2% ± 1.7% (P = .214) but was unsatisfactory for nonirradiated patients in TG2 (68.5% ± 7.4% v 91.4% ± 1.9%; P < .0001), with similar but not significant results in TG3 (82.6% ± 5.4% v 88.7% ± 2.0%, P = .259). Reduction of the standard radiation dose from 25 to 20 Gy did not increase failure rate.

Conclusion

RT can be omitted in early stage HL in so defined CR following this chemotherapy. RT with 20(−35) Gy proved to be sufficient in patients with incomplete remission following chemotherapy.

Cardiac complications of thoracic irradiation

Adjuvant radiation therapy in the management of early stage breast cancer, Hodgkin's disease, and to a lesser extent other thoracic malignancies has led to a significant improvement in disease-specific survival. Cardiovascular disease is now the most common nonmalignancy cause of death in radiation-treated cancer survivors, most often occurring decades after treatment. The spectrum of radiation-induced cardiac disease is broad, potentially involving any component of the heart. The relative risk of coronary artery disease, congestive heart failure, valvular heart disease, pericardial disease, conduction abnormalities, and sudden cardiac death is particularly increased. Over the years contemporary techniques have been introduced to reduce cardiac morbidity and mortality in radiation-treated cancer survivors; however, the long-term effects on the heart still remain unclear, mandating longer follow-up. Awareness and early identification of potential cardiac complications is crucial in cancer survivors, with the management often being quite complex. This review examines the epidemiology of radiation-induced cardiac disease together with its pathophysiology and explores the available treatment strategies and the potential utility of various screening strategies for affected cancer survivors.

The Dutch Childhood Oncology Group guideline for follow-up of asymptomatic cardiac dysfunction in childhood cancer survivors

BACKGROUND

The Late Effects of Childhood Cancer task force of the Dutch Childhood Oncology Group (DCOG LATER) developed a guideline for follow-up of asymptomatic cardiac dysfunction in childhood cancer survivors (CCS). In this paper, we present the methods, available evidence and final recommendations of our guideline.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multidisciplinary working group specified clinical questions that should be answered to get to recommendations for the guideline. We carried out short or extensive evidence summaries and determined methodological quality of studies and levels of evidence in order to answer all clinical questions. When evidence was lacking for CCS, we carefully extrapolated evidence from other populations. Final recommendations were based on evidence and consensus.

RESULTS

There was high-level evidence for the increased risk of cardiac dysfunction in CCS and its main risk factors. Evidence was lacking regarding the prognosis, diagnosis and treatment of cardiac dysfunction in CCS. We recommended echocardiographic screening for asymptomatic cardiac dysfunction in CCS treated with cardiotoxic treatments and counseling about potential advantages and disadvantages of our screening recommendations.

CONCLUSION

The DCOG LATER guideline recommends risk-based screening for asymptomatic cardiac dysfunction in CCS, but it should be noted that recommendations are not completely supported by evidence in CCS.

Second malignant neoplasms and cardiovascular disease following radiotherapy

Second malignant neoplasms (SMNs) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) are among the most serious and life-threatening late adverse effects experienced by the growing number of cancer survivors worldwide and are due in part to radiotherapy. The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) convened an expert scientific committee to critically and comprehensively review associations between radiotherapy and SMNs and CVD, taking into account radiobiology; genomics; treatment (ie, radiotherapy with or without chemotherapy and other therapies); type of radiation; and quantitative considerations (ie, dose-response relationships). Major conclusions of the NCRP include: 1) the relevance of older technologies for current risk assessment when organ-specific absorbed dose and the appropriate relative biological effectiveness are taken into account and 2) the identification of critical research needs with regard to newer radiation modalities, dose-response relationships, and genetic susceptibility. Recommendation for research priorities and infrastructural requirements include 1) long-term large-scale follow-up of extant cancer survivors and prospectively treated patients to characterize risks of SMNs and CVD in terms of radiation dose and type; 2) biological sample collection to integrate epidemiological studies with molecular and genetic evaluations; 3) investigation of interactions between radiotherapy and other potential confounding factors, such as age, sex, race, tobacco and alcohol use, dietary intake, energy balance, and other cofactors, as well as genetic susceptibility; 4) focusing on adolescent and young adult cancer survivors, given the sparse research in this population; and 5) construction of comprehensive risk prediction models for SMNs and CVD to permit the development of follow-up guidelines and prevention and intervention strategies.

Risk of developing cardiovascular disease after involved node radiotherapy versus mantle field for Hodgkin lymphoma

PURPOSE

Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) survivors are known to have increased cardiac mortality and morbidity. The risk of developing cardiovascular disease after involved node radiotherapy (INRT) is currently unresolved, inasmuch as present clinical data are derived from patients treated with the outdated mantle field (MF) technique.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We included all adolescents and young adults with supradiaphragmatic, clinical Stage I-II HL treated at our institution from 2006 to 2010 (29 patients). All patients were treated with chemotherapy and INRT to 30 to 36 Gy. We then simulated a MF plan for each patient with a prescribed dose of 36 Gy. A logistic dose-response curve for the 25-year absolute excess risk of cardiovascular disease was derived and applied to each patient using the individual dose-volume histograms.

RESULTS

The mean doses to the heart, four heart valves, and coronary arteries were significantly lower for INRT than for MF treatment. However, the range in doses with INRT treatment was substantial, and for a subgroup of patients, with lymphoma below the fourth thoracic vertebrae, we estimated a 25-year absolute excess risk of any cardiac event of as much as 5.1%.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrates a potential for individualizing treatment by selecting the patients for whom INRT provides sufficient cardiac protection for current technology; and a subgroup of patients, who still receive high cardiac doses, who would benefit from more advanced radiation technique.

Dosimetric predictors of asymptomatic heart valvular dysfunction following mediastinal irradiation for Hodgkin's lymphoma

PURPOSE

To identify dose-heart-volume constraints that correlate with the risk of developing asymptomatic valvular defects (VD) in Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL) patients treated with three-dimensional radiotherapy (RT).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Fifty-six patients undergoing cytotoxic chemotherapy (CHT) and involved-field radiation treatment for HL were retrospectively analyzed. Electro-echocardiography was performed before CHT, after CHT, and after RT. For the entire heart, for right and left ventricle (RV, LV), right and left atrium (RA, LA) percentage of volume exceeding 5-30Gy in increment of 5Gy (V(x)), and dosimetric parameters were calculated using 1.6Gy fraction as reference. To evaluate clinical and dosimetric factors possibly associated with VD, univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

At a median follow up of 70.5 months, 32.1% of patients developed VD (regurgitation and/or stenosis): 25.0% developed mitral, 5.4% developed aortic, and 14.3% tricuspid VD. In particular the percentage of LA exceeding 25Gy (LA-V(25)) and the percentage of LV exceeding 30Gy (LV-V(30)) correlated with mitral and aortic VD with an odds ratio (OR) of 5.7 (LA-V(25)>63.0% vs. LA-V(25)≤63.0%) and OR of 4.4 (LV-V(30)>25% vs. LV-V(30)≤25%), respectively. RV-V(30) correlated with tricuspid VD (OR=7.2, RV-V(30)>65% vs. RV-V(30)≤65%).

CONCLUSION

LA-V(25), LV- and RV-V(30) prove to be predictors of asymptomatic alteration of valve functionality.