Assessment of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory and analgesic pharmaceuticals in seawaters of North of Portugal: occurrence and environmental risk

Transcriptional and cellular effects of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) in experimentally exposed mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis

The aim of the present investigation was to provide new insights on accumulation and possible adverse effects of various non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, exposed to an environmentally realistic concentration (0.5μg/L) of individual compounds, Acetaminophen (AMP), Diclofenac (DIC), Ibuprofen (IBU), Ketoprofen (KET) or Nimesulide (NIM). The measurement of drugs in mussel tissues was integrated with both functional alterations at cellular level and transcriptomic responses. Results indicated the capability of mussels to accumulate DIC and NIM, while AMP, IBU and KET were always below detection limit. A large panel of ecotoxicological biomarkers revealed the early onset of alterations induced by tested NSAIDs on immunological responses, lipid metabolism and DNA integrity. The gene transcription analysis through DNA microarrays, supported cellular biomarker results, with clear modulation of a large number of genes involved in the arachidonic acid and lipid metabolism, immune responses, cell cycle and DNA repair. The overall results indicated an ecotoxicological concern for pharmaceuticals in M. galloprovincialis, with transcriptional responses appearing as sensitive exposure biomarkers at low levels of exposure: such changes, however, are not always paralleled by corresponding functional effects, suggesting caution when interpreting observed effects in terms of perturbed cellular pathways. Fascinating similarities can also be proposed in the mode of action of NSAIDs between bivalves and vertebrate species.

Anthropogenic pressure in a Portuguese river: Endocrine-disrupting compounds, trace elements and nutrients

Natural organic compounds such as phytoestrogens and phytosterols found in various plants, as well as mycotoxins produced by fungi, can be found in aquatic environments. The aim of this study was to investigate the occurrence of three different classes of natural estrogenic compounds, i.e., phytoestrogens, phytosterols and mycotoxins, in estuarine water samples from the Ave River estuary. For that, water samples were collected at five sampling points distributed along the estuary at low tide, during 1 year, processed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and analyzed by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). To correlate the presence of phytoestrogens and phytosterols in the estuarine water, local flora was collected on riverside. Trace elements content and physicochemical parameters such as nutrients and dissolved oxygen were also determined seasonally at each sampling point, to give insights for the evaluation of water quality and anthropogenic pressure. Both phytoestrogens and phytosterols showed a seasonal variation, with the highest values observed in spring and summer and the lowest in winter. Daidzein (DAID) was found up to 404.0 ng L(-1) in spring and coumestrol (COUM) was found up to 165.0 ng L(-1) in summer. The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) was ubiquitously determined with values ranging from 59.5 to 642.4 ng L(-1). Nutrients and metals distribution and concentration varied among sampling stations and seasons. This study revealed for the first time the presence of mycotoxins, various classes of phytoestrogens and stigmasterol (STG) in estuarine water from the Ave River (Portugal), and the evaluation of the water quality confirmed that this estuary is still highly impacted by anthropogenic activities.

Ecotoxicological potential of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in marine organisms: Bioavailability, biomarkers and natural occurrence in Mytilus galloprovincialis

Pharmaceuticals represent a major environmental concern since the knowledge on their occurrence, distribution and ecotoxicological potential is still limited particularly in coastal areas. In this study, bioaccumulation and cellular effects of various non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) were investigated in mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis to reveal whether common molecules belonging to the same therapeutic class might cause different effects on non target organisms. Organisms exposed to environmental concentrations of acetaminophen (AMP), diclofenac (DIC), ibuprofen (IBU), ketoprofen (KET) and nimesulide (NIM) revealed a significant accumulation of DIC, IBU and NIM, while AMP and KET were always below detection limit. Nonetheless, for all tested NSAIDs, measurement of a large panel of ecotoxicological biomarkers highlighted impairment of immunological parameters, onset of genotoxicity and modulation of lipid metabolism, oxidative and neurotoxic effects. Laboratory results were integrated with a field study which provided the first evidence on the occurrence of DIC, IBU and NIM in tissues of wild mussels sampled during summer months from an unpolluted, touristic area of Central Adriatic Sea. Overall results demonstrated M. galloprovincialis as a good sentinel species for monitoring presence and ecotoxicological hazard of pharmaceuticals in the Mediterranean.

Evaluation of acute effects of four pharmaceuticals and their mixtures on the copepod Tisbe battagliai

The individual and combined toxicities of acetaminophen, carbamazepine, diclofenac and ibuprofen have been examined in neonate nauplii (<24 h-old) of the harpacticoid copepod Tisbe battagliai. Based on acute toxicity data (LC50) obtained, diclofenac was the most toxic compound with an LC50 value of 9.5 mg·L(-1); this is between 5 and 7 times lower than the LC50 value for acetaminophen, carbamazepine and ibuprofen (67.8 mg·L(-1), 59 mg·L(-1) and 49.7 mg·L(-1) respectively). The environmental risk posed by the selected pharmaceuticals was assessed by calculating risk quotients (RQs) based on MEC (the highest exposure concentration of the compound in the medium)/PNEC (predicted no effect concentration) ratios. Results suggest that, at environmental concentrations, none of the compounds is harmful for the aquatic environment (low or no risk). Toxicity data obtained for mixtures were compared with predictions derived from three different models: Concentration Addition (CA), Independent Action (IA) and Combination Index (CI). The classical modeling approaches CA and IA failed to predict the observed mixture toxicity, thus indicating that single compound toxicity data are not sufficient to predict toxicity of drug mixtures on Tisbe species. However, the use of the CI seems to provide better predictions of pharmaceutical toxicity.

Mediated effect of ultrasound treated Diclofenac on mussel hemocytes: First evidence for the involvement of respiratory burst enzymes in the induction of DCF-mediated unspecific mode of action

The present study investigates the toxic behavior of diclofenac (DCF) before and after its ultrasound (US) treatment, as well as the involvement of intracellular target molecules, such as NADPH oxidase and NO synthase, in the DCF-induced adverse effects on hemocytes of mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. In this context, appropriate volumes (350 and 500mL) of DCF solutions (at concentrations of 2, 2.5, 5 and 10mgL(-1)) were treated under different ultrasound operating conditions (frequency at 582 and 862kHz, electric power density at 133 and 167W) for assessing US method efficiency. In parallel, DCF and US DCF-mediated cytotoxic (in terms of cell viability measured with the use of neutral red uptake/NRU method), oxidative (in terms of superoxide anions/(.)O2(-), nitric oxides such as NO2(-) and lipid peroxidation products, such as malondialdehyde/MDA content) and genotoxic (DNA damage measured by the use of Comet assay method) effects were investigated in hemocytes exposed for 1h to 5, 10 and 100ngL(-1) and 1, 10 and 20μgL(-1) of DCF. The involvement of NADPH oxidase and NO synthase to the DCF-induced toxicity was further investigated by the use of 10μΜ L-NAME, a NO synthase inhibitor and 10μΜ DPI, a NADPH oxidase inhibitor. According to the results, 350mL of 2mgL(-1) DCF showed higher degradation (>50%) under 167W electric power density and frequency at 862kHz for 120min, compared to degradation in all other cases, followed by a significant elimination of its toxicity. Specifically, US DCF-treated hemocytes showed a significant attenuation of DCF-mediated cytotoxic, oxidative and genotoxic effects, which appeared to be caused by NADPH oxidase and NO synthase activation, since their inhibition was followed by a significant elimination of (.)O2(-) and NO2(-) generation and the concomitant oxidative damage within cells. The results of the present study showed for the first time that unspecific mode of action of DCF, associated with the induction of NADPH oxidase and NO synthase in mussel hemocytes, could be significantly diminished after partial US degradation of DCF, at least under optimized operating conditions currently tested.

PPCPs in Jiulong River estuary (China): Spatiotemporal distributions, fate, and their use as chemical markers of wastewater

The occurrence and fate of 50 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) were investigated in the surface water of Jiulong River estuary in the southeast of China in spring, wet season, summer, autumn and winter. Results demonstrated a wide distribution of PPCPs in Jiulong River estuary, where 34 PPCPs were detected at least once and 5 PPCPs were detected in all the samples, including caffeine, diclofenac, metoprolol, methyl paraben, and propyl paraben. Spatial and seasonal variations were observed. Special emphasis was placed on the PPCP fate in the estuary. Most PPCPs showed a non-conservative behavior in the estuary, while the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and bisphenol A showed a pseudo-conservative behavior. The non-conservative and pseudo-conservative behavior was attributed to the combination of the seawater dilution, the introduction of PPCPs via the sewage water, and the physical, chemical, or biological removal processes. Furthermore, PPCP concentrations showed drastic variations in the turbidity maximum zones. To our best knowledge, this is the first work to indicate the pseudo-conservative behavior of PPCPs in the estuary, and to show the drastic variations of PPCPs in the turbidity maximum zone. In addition, the ratio of labile to conservative PPCPs was calculated to track the source of untreated sewage contamination. Results showed a significantly higher ratio compared to the average value in WWTP effluents, indicating the ubiquitous discharge of untreated domestic wastewater in Jiulong River estuary. In addition, the high ratio of bisphenol A to conservative PPCPs implied the potential input of untreated industrial wastewater in Jiulong River estuary.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in a Brazilian coastal zone

The present study determined environmental concentrations of pharmaceuticals, cocaine, and the main human metabolite of cocaine in seawater sampled from a subtropical coastal zone (Santos, Brazil). The Santos Bay is located in a metropolitan region and receives over 7367m(3) of wastewater per day. Five sample points under strong influence of the submarine sewage outfall were chosen. Through quantitative analysis by LC-MS/MS, 33 compounds were investigated. Seven pharmaceuticals (atenolol, acetaminophen, caffeine, losartan, valsartan, diclofenac, and ibuprofen), an illicit drug (cocaine), and its main human metabolite (benzoylecgonine) were detected at least once in seawater sampled from Santos Bay at concentrations that ranged from ng·L(-1) to μg·L(-1). In light of the possibility of bioaccumulation and harmful effects, the high concentrations of pharmaceuticals and cocaine found in this marine subtropical ecosystem are of environmental concern.

UV and solar photo-degradation of naproxen: TiO₂ catalyst effect, reaction kinetics, products identification and toxicity assessment

Direct photolysis and TiO2-photocatalytic degradation of naproxen (NPX) in aqueous solution were studied using a UV lamp and solar irradiation. The degradation of NPX was found to be in accordance with pseudo-first order kinetics, the photocatalytic process being more efficient than photolysis. The NPX removal by photolysis (pHinitial 6.5) was 83% after 3h, with 11% of chemical oxygen demand (COD) reduction, whereas the TiO2-UV process led to higher removals of both NPX (98%) and COD (25%). The apparent pseudo-first-order rate constant (kapp) for NPX degradation by photolysis ranged from 0.0050 min(-1) at pH 3.5 to 0.0095 min(-1) at pH 6.5, while it was estimated to be 0.0063 min(-1) under acidic conditions in photocatalysis, increasing by 4-fold at pH 6.5. Ultra High Performance Liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled with a triple quadrupole detector and also a hybrid mass spectrometer which combines the linear ion trap triple quadrupole (LTQ) and OrbiTrap mass analyser, were used to identify NPX degradation products. The main intermediates detected were 1-(6-methoxynaphtalene-2-yl) ethylhydroperoxide, 2-ethyl-6-methoxynaphthalene, 1-(6-methoxynaphtalen-2-yl) ethanol, 1-(6-methoxynaphtalen-2-yl) ethanone and malic acid. Solar photocatalysis of NPX showed COD removals of 33% and 65% after 3 and 4h of treatment, respectively, and some reduction of acute toxicity, evaluated by the exposure of Eisenia andrei to OECD soils spiked with NPX-treated solutions.

Occurrence and spatial distribution of 158 pharmaceuticals, drugs of abuse and related metabolites in offshore seawater

The occurrence and spatial distribution of 158 pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse were studied in seawater of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea (Saronikos Gulf and Elefsis Bay in central Aegean Sea). This area is affected by various anthropogenic pressures as it receives the treated wastewater of the greatest Athens area and off-shore input fluxes. This study constitutes the largest one in terms of number of analytes in this environmental compartment. It provides the first evidence on the occurrence of several pharmaceuticals in marine environment including amoxicillin, lidocaine, citalopram or tramadol, among others. 22 samples were collected at three different depths in 9 sampling stations in order to assess the presence and the spatial distribution of the target compounds. A multi-residue method based on solid phase extraction and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was developed for the determination of the 158 target substances and validated for seawater sample analysis. 38 out of the 158 target compounds were detected, 15 of them with frequencies of detection equal to or higher than 50%. The highest detected values corresponded to amoxicillin, caffeine and salicylic acid, with concentrations in the range of < 5.0-127.8 ng L(-1); 5.2-78.2 ng L(-1) and < 0.4-53.3 ng L(-1), respectively. Inputs from the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) of Athens revealed to be the main source of pollution in the Inner Saronikos Gulf, whereas, other anthropogenic pressures such as contamination from shipping activity, industrial effluents, dredging and/or inputs from land proved to be also relevant. Τhe concentrations of some compounds varied significantly with depth suggesting that currents play an important role in the dilution of the target compounds.

Presence of pharmaceuticals and heavy metals in the waters of a Mediterranean coastal wetland: Potential interactions and the influence of the environment

The occurrence of 17 relevant pharmaceuticals and 7 heavy metals in the waters of the Pego-Oliva Marsh Natural Park (Valencia Community, Spain) were monitored. Thirty four zones (including the lagoon and the most important irrigation channels), covering the main land uses and water sources, were selected for sampling. Thirty three of them were contaminated with at least one pharmaceutical. Ibuprofen and codeine were the pharmaceuticals more frequently detected, in concentrations between 4.8 and 1.2 ng/L and a maximum of 59 ng/L and 63 ng/L, respectively. Regarding metals, Zn showed values under the detection limit in all the samples, while Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb were detected at concentrations lower than the WHO and EU maximum levels for drinking waters. Ni showed significant direct correlations with diazepam, norfloxacin, ofloxacin and fenofibrate, and inverse relationships with ibuprofen, at 99 and 95% of significance. Cu, Co and Cr also showed significant correlations with some of the pharmaceuticals. These interactions could favor the synergistic/antagonistic interactions among pharmaceuticals and metals in the marsh, which can affect its aquatic fauna and flora or even human health. The influences of the water sources, land uses and spatial distribution of both types of contaminants were also studied.

Occurrence of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in Tehran source water, municipal and hospital wastewaters, and their ecotoxicological risk assessment

Pharmaceuticals are becoming widely distributed in waters and wastewaters and pose a serious threat to public health. The present study aimed to analyze non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in surface waters, drinking water, and wastewater in Tehran, Iran. Thirty-six samples were collected from surface waters, tap water, and influent and effluent of municipal and hospital wastewater treatment plants (WWTP). A solid-phase extraction (SPE) followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was used for the determination of pharmaceuticals, namely ibuprofen (IBP), naproxen (NPX), diclofenac (DIC), and indomethacin (IDM). IBP was found in most of the samples and had the highest concentration. The highest concentrations of NSAIDs were found in the municipal WWTP influents and hospital WWTP effluents. In the municipal WWTP influent samples, the concentrations of IBP, NPX, DIC, and IDM were 1.05, 0.43, 0.23, and 0.11 μg/L, respectively. DIC was found only in one river sample. All NSAIDs were detected in tap water samples. However, their concentration was very low and the maximum values for IBP, NPX, DIC, and IDM were 47, 39, 24, and 37 ng/L, respectively, in tap water samples. Results showed that the measured pharmaceuticals were detected in all rivers with low concentrations in nanograms per liter range, except DIC which was found only in one river. Furthermore, this study showed that the aforementioned pharmaceuticals are not completely removed during their passage through WWTPs. A potential environmental risk of selected NSAIDs for the urban wastewater has been discussed. However, given their low measured concentrations, no ecotoxicological effect is suspected to occur.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds in macroalgaes, bivalves, and fish from coastal areas in Europe

The occurrence and levels of PhACs, Endocrine Disrupting and related Compounds (EDCs) in seafood from potential contaminated areas in Europe has been studied. Macroalgae (Saccharina latissima and Laminaria digitata), bivalves (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Mytilus spp., Chamalea gallina and Crassostrea gigas) and fish (Liza aurata and Platichthys flesus) from Portugal, Spain, Italy, Netherlands, and Norway were analysed following 4 different analytical protocols depending on the organism and target group of contaminants. The results revealed the presence of 4 pharmaceutical compounds in macroalgae samples, 16 in bivalves and 10 in fish. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that PhACs have been detected in marine fish and in macroalgae. Besides, this is also the first time that dimetridazole, hydrochlorothiazide and tamsulosin have been detected in biota samples. The highest levels of PhACs corresponded to the psychiatric drug velanfaxine (up to 36.1 ng/g dry weight (dw)) and the antibiotic azithromycin (up to 13.3 ng/g dw) in bivalves from the Po delta (Italy). EDCs were not detected in macroalgae samples, however, the analysis revealed the presence of 10 EDCs in bivalves and 8 in fish. The highest levels corresponded to the organophosphorus flame retardant tris(2-butoxyethyl)phosphate (TBEP) reaching up to 98.4 ng/g dw in mullet fish from the Tagus estuary. Bivalves, in particular mussels, have shown to be good bioindicator organisms for PhACs and fish for EDCs. Taking into consideration the concentrations and frequencies of detection of PhACs and EDCs in the seafood samples analysed, a list of candidates' compounds for priorization in future studies has been proposed.

Degradation of pharmaceutical compounds in water by non-thermal plasma treatment

Pharmaceutical compounds became an important class of water pollutants due to their increasing consumption over the last years, as well as due to their persistence in the environment. Since conventional waste water treatment plants are unable to remove certain non-biodegradable pharmaceuticals, advanced oxidation processes was extensively studied for this purpose. Among them, non-thermal plasma was also recently investigated and promising results were obtained. This work reviews the recent research on the oxidative degradation of pharmaceuticals using non-thermal plasma in contact with liquid. As target compounds, several drugs belonging to different therapeutic groups were selected: antibiotics, anticonvulsants, anxiolytics, lipid regulators, vasodilatators, contrast media, antihypertensives and analgesics. It was found that these compounds were removed from water relatively fast, partly degraded, and partly even mineralized. In order to ensure the effluent is environmentally safe it is important to identify the degradation intermediates and to follow their evolution during treatment, which requires complex chemical analysis of the solutions. Based on this analysis, degradation pathways of the investigated pharmaceuticals under plasma conditions were suggested. After sufficient plasma treatment the final organic by-products present in the solutions were mainly small molecules in an advanced oxidation state.

Enantioselective analysis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in freshwater fish based on microextraction with a supramolecular liquid and chiral liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry

Toxicity of pharmaceuticals to aquatic biota is still largely unknown, and no research on the stereoselective toxicity of chiral drugs to these organisms has been undertaken to date. Because of the lack of analytical methods available for this purpose, this manuscript deals, for the first time, with the enantioselective analysis of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) ibuprofen, naproxen and ketoprofen in freshwater fish. The method was based on the microextraction of NSAIDs from fish muscle with a supramolecular liquid made up of inverted hexagonal aggregates of decanoic acid, their enantiomeric separation by liquid chromatography onto a (R)-1-naphthylglycine and 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid stationary phase and quantification by tandem mass spectrometry. Limits of quantitation (LOQs) for NSAID enantiomers were in the range 1.7-3.3 ng g(-1). Absolute recoveries were from 97 to 104 %, which indicated the high extraction efficiency of the supramolecular solvent. Extraction equilibrium conditions were reached after 10 min which permitted fast sample treatment. Relative standard deviations for enantiomers in fish muscle were always below 6 %. Isotopically labelled internal standards were used to compensate for matrix interferences. The method in-house validation was carried out with the Oncorhynchus mykiss species, and it was applied to the determination of NSAID enantiomers in different fortified freshwater fish species (Alburnus alburnus, Lepomis gibbosus, Micropterus salmoides, O. mykiss and Cyprinus carpio).