Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners

Effect of meditation on intracerebral EEG in a patient with temporal lobe epilepsy: A case report

Meditation has been deemed a miracle cure for a wide range of neurological disorders. However, it is unclear whether meditation practice would be beneficial for patients suffering from epilepsy. Here we report on the comparison of the effects of focused-attention meditation and a control task on electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in a patient undergoing stereoencephalographic (SEEG) investigation for drug-resistant epilepsy. The patient routinely practiced focused-attention meditation and reported that she found it beneficial. During the SEEG investigation, intracerebral EEG data were recorded during meditation as well as during mind-wandering task. The EEG data were analyzed for type of electrical activity (labeled) by two expert epileptologists. We found that the proportion of EEG segments containing activity classified as interictal epileptiform discharges (IEDs; abnormal electrical activity that occurs between seizures) increased significantly during meditation practice. Although the finding was surprising, this increase in IEDs may not correlate with an increase in seizure frequency, and the patient might still benefit from practicing meditation. The finding does, however, warrant further studies on the influence of meditation on epileptic activity.

The effects of an internet-based mindfulness meditation intervention on electrophysiological markers of attention

Evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation training has the potential to train aspects of attention. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underpinning the attentional benefits from mindfulness remain unclear. This randomized controlled trial examined changes in electrophysiological markers of attention before and after completion of a 6-week internet-based mindfulness intervention. EEG and ERP data were collected from 64 generally healthy, mildly stressed older adults. Participants were randomized to an internet-based mindfulness-based stress reduction course (IMMI), an internet-based health and wellness education course, or a waitlist control condition. Attentional N2 and P3 evoked potentials were derived from active and passive auditory oddball paradigms. Participants in the IMMI group showed significantly greater differences in P3 peak-trough amplitude between the active and passive oddball paradigms at endpoint relative to controls. There were no significant relationships between the intervention and N2 potentials. Our data demonstrate a measurable increase in attentional control when discriminating or directing attention away from auditory stimuli for older adult participants who received mindfulness training. These findings lend support to the use of the P3 as a neurophysiological measure of meditation engagement and intervention efficacy.

Focused attention meditation changes the boundary and configuration of functional networks in the brain

Research has shown that focused attention meditation not only improves our cognitive and motivational functioning (e.g., attention, mental health), it influences the way our brain networks [e.g., default mode network (DMN), fronto-parietal network (FPN), and sensory-motor network (SMN)] function and operate. However, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the possibility that meditation alters the architecture (composition) of these functional brain networks. Here, using a single-case experimental design with intensive longitudinal data, we examined the effect of mediation practice on intra-individual changes in the composition of whole-brain networks. The results showed that meditation (1) changed the community size (with a number of regions in the FPN being merged into the DMN after meditation) and (2) led to instability in the community allegiance of the regions in the FPN. These results suggest that, in addition to altering specific functional connectivity, meditation leads to reconfiguration of whole-brain network architecture. The reconfiguration of community architecture in the brain provides fruitful information about the neural mechanisms of meditation.

A Longitudinal Training Study to Delineate the Specific Causal Effects of Open Monitoring Versus Focused Attention Techniques on Emotional Health

BACKGROUND

Emotional dysregulation is a core mechanism of mood disorders. Meditation-based interventions can ameliorate a wide range of psychological problems. However, in order to develop structured treatment and preventative protocols for emotional disorders, it is crucial to understand how different types of specific meditation practices improve emotion regulation abilities. Mindfulness-based techniques are broadly separated into two practices - open monitoring (OM) and focused attention (FA). This study directly investigated the potential practice-specific benefits of OM versus FA techniques as tools for improving emotion regulation skills from pre-to-post training.

METHOD

Novice participants were randomized into an 8-week long OM or FA intervention that was previously developed through a science of behavior change approach. Healthy emotional skills were assessed using experience sampling methodology and inventories. Participants were assessed before, during, and after the interventions to investigate if the type of training may explain longitudinal changes in emotional skills.

RESULTS

Both OM and FA attentional training practices improved acceptance of stressors and reduced distress and rumination. We also found divergent effects of OM versus FA training: Compared to OM, FA training improved abilities to use reappraisal strategy to regulate emotions in naturalistic settings at the end of 8-weeks training. FA training (versus OM) also led to greater self-regulation abilities.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that a FA training has specific causal impacts on emotion regulatory skills, and it can be selectively implemented in interventions to target emotional disorders.

Rajyoga meditation induces grey matter volume changes in regions that process reward and happiness

Studies provide evidence that practicing meditation enhances neural plasticity in reward processing areas of brain. No studies till date, provide evidence of such changes in Rajyoga meditation (RM) practitioners. The present study aimed to identify grey matter volume (GMV) changes in reward processing areas of brain and its association with happiness scores in RM practitioners compared to non-meditators. Structural MRI of selected participants matched for age, gender and handedness (n = 40/group) were analyzed using voxel-based morphometric method and Oxford Happiness Questionnaire (OHQ) scores were correlated. Significant increase in OHQ happiness scores were observed in RM practitioners compared to non-meditators. Whereas, a trend towards significance was observed in more experienced RM practitioners, on correlating OHQ scores with hours of meditation experience. Additionally, in RM practitioners, higher GMV were observed in reward processing centers—right superior frontal gyrus, left inferior orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and bilateral precuneus. Multiple regression analysis showed significant association between OHQ scores of RM practitioners and reward processing regions right superior frontal gyrus, left middle OFC, right insula and left anterior cingulate cortex. Further, with increasing hours of RM practice, a significant positive association was observed in bilateral ventral pallidum. These findings indicate that RM practice enhances GMV in reward processing regions associated with happiness.

Neural Correlates of Personalized Spiritual Experiences

Across cultures and throughout history, human beings have reported a variety of spiritual experiences and the concomitant perceived sense of union that transcends one's ordinary sense of self. Nevertheless, little is known about the underlying neural mechanisms of spiritual experiences, particularly when examined across different traditions and practices. By adapting an individualized guided-imagery task, we investigated neural correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences as compared with stressful and neutral-relaxing experiences. We observed in the spiritual condition, as compared with the neutral-relaxing condition, reduced activity in the left inferior parietal lobule (IPL), a result that suggests the IPL may contribute importantly to perceptual processing and self-other representations during spiritual experiences. Compared with stress cues, responses to spiritual cues showed reduced activity in the medial thalamus and caudate, regions associated with sensory and emotional processing. Overall, the study introduces a novel method for investigating brain correlates of personally meaningful spiritual experiences and suggests neural mechanisms associated with broadly defined and personally experienced spirituality.

Larger Volume and Different Activation of the Brain in Response to Threat in Military Officers

Introduction:

Military missions involve stressful and life-threatening situations; however, soldiers should have a healthy cognition on the battlefield despite their high-stress levels. This is an ability that should be gained during prior military training. Successful and influential training is suggested to be associated with structural and functional improvements of the brain.

Methods:

This study investigated the pattern of brain activation while observing videos relevant to life-threatening situations, in addition to brain structure. Accordingly, the obtained data were compared between 20 military members and 26 healthy controls. The study participants were all male, aged between 19 to 24 years, right-handed, studying BSc, and from the same socioeconomic status.

Results:

The obtained data presented a larger volume in a total number of 1103 voxels of the brain (in 5 brain areas) in the military group. Furthermore, the military group suggested higher brain activation in the visual processing areas of the brain when observing real combat videos; however, this increment was mostly in the areas associated with motor processing and executive functions in the controls.

Conclusion:

This study indicated that military training is associated with positive structural changes in the brain. Besides, it provided a different brain activation in response to stressful situations. These findings highlighted the importance of qualified military training.

Focus on the Breath: Brain Decoding Reveals Internal States of Attention During Meditation

Meditation practices are often used to cultivate interoception or internally-oriented attention to bodily sensations, which may improve health via cognitive and emotional regulation of bodily signals. However, it remains unclear how meditation impacts internal attention (IA) states due to lack of measurement tools that can objectively assess mental states during meditation practice itself, and produce time estimates of internal focus at individual or group levels. To address these measurement gaps, we tested the feasibility of applying multi-voxel pattern analysis (MVPA) to single-subject fMRI data to: (1) learn and recognize internal attentional states relevant for meditation during a directed IA task; and (2) decode or estimate the presence of those IA states during an independent meditation session. Within a mixed sample of experienced meditators and novice controls (N = 16), we first used MVPA to develop single-subject brain classifiers for five modes of attention during an IA task in which subjects were specifically instructed to engage in one of five states [i.e., meditation-related states: breath attention, mind wandering (MW), and self-referential processing, and control states: attention to feet and sounds]. Using standard cross-validation procedures, MVPA classifiers were trained in five of six IA blocks for each subject, and predictive accuracy was tested on the independent sixth block (iterated until all volumes were tested, N = 2,160). Across participants, all five IA states were significantly recognized well above chance (>41% vs. 20% chance). At the individual level, IA states were recognized in most participants (87.5%), suggesting that recognition of IA neural patterns may be generalizable for most participants, particularly experienced meditators. Next, for those who showed accurate IA neural patterns, the originally trained classifiers were applied to a separate meditation run (10-min) to make an inference about the percentage time engaged in each IA state (breath attention, MW, or self-referential processing). Preliminary group-level analyses demonstrated that during meditation practice, participants spent more time attending to breath compared to MW or self-referential processing. This paradigm established the feasibility of using MVPA classifiers to objectively assess mental states during meditation at the participant level, which holds promise for improved measurement of internal attention states cultivated by meditation.

Long-term beneficial effects of an online mind-body training program on stress and psychological outcomes in female healthcare providers: A non-randomized controlled study

Mind-body training (MBT) programs are effective interventions for relieving stress and improving psychological capabilities. To expand our previous study which demonstrated the short-term effects of an 8-week online MBT program, the present study investigated whether those short-term effects persist up to a month after the end of the intervention.Among previous participants, 56 (64%) participated in this follow-up study, 25 in the MBT group and 31 in the control group. Outcome measures included the stress response, emotional intelligence, resilience, coping strategies, positive and negative affect, and anger expression of both groups at baseline, at 8 weeks (right after the training or waiting period), and at 12 weeks (a month after the training or waiting period).The MBT group showed a greater decrease in stress response at 8 weeks, and this reduction remained a month after the end of the intervention. The effect of MBT on resilience and effective coping strategies was also significant at 8 weeks and remained constant a month later. However, the improvement to emotional intelligence and negative affect did not persist a month after training.These findings suggest that the beneficial short-term effects of MBT may last beyond the training period even without continuous practice, but the retention of these benefits seems to depend on the outcome variables. Through a convenient, affordable, and easily accessible online format, MBT may provide cost-effective solutions for employees at worksites.

Meditation and the Wandering Mind: A Theoretical Framework of Underlying Neurocognitive Mechanisms

During the practice of meditation, the tendency of the mind to wander away from the object of focus is ubiquitous. The occurrence of mind wandering in the context of meditation provides individuals a unique and intimate opportunity to closely examine the nature of the wandering mind by cultivating an awareness of ongoing thought patterns, while simultaneously aiming to cultivate equanimity (evenness of temper or disposition) and compassion toward the content of thoughts, interpretations, and bodily sensations. In this article we provide a theoretical framework that highlights the neurocognitive mechanisms by which contemplative practices influence the neural and phenomenological processes underlying spontaneous thought. Our theoretical model focuses on several converging mechanisms: the role of meta-awareness in facilitating an increased moment-to-moment awareness of spontaneous thought processes, the effects of meditation practice on key structures underlying both the top-down cognitive processes and bottom-up sensory processes implicated in attention and emotion regulation, and the influence of contemplative practice on the neural substrates underlying perception and perceptual decoupling.

Closed-Loop Frontal Midlineθ Neurofeedback: A Novel Approach for Training Focused-Attention Meditation

Cortical oscillations serve as an index of both sensory and cognitive processes and represent one of the most promising candidates for training and targeting the top-down mechanisms underlying executive functions. Research findings suggest that theta (θ) oscillations (3-7 Hz) recorded over frontal-midline electrodes are broadly associated with a number of higher-order cognitive processes and may serve as the mechanistic backbone for cognitive control. Frontal-midline theta (FMθ) oscillations have also been shown to inversely correlate with activity in the default mode network (DMN), a network in the brain linked to spontaneous thought processes such as mind-wandering and rumination. In line with these findings, we previously observed increased FMθ oscillations in expert meditation practitioners during reported periods of focused-attention meditation practice when compared to periods of mind-wandering. In an effort to narrow the explanatory gap by directly connecting observed neurophysiological activity in the brain to the phenomenological nature of reported experience, we designed a methodologically novel and adaptive neurofeedback protocol with the aim of modulating FMθ while having meditation novice participants implement breath-focus strategies derived from focused-attention mediation practices. Participants who received eight sessions of the adaptive FMθ-meditation neurofeedback protocol were able to significantly modulate FMθ over frontal electrodes using focused-attention meditation strategies relative to their baseline by the end of the training and demonstrated significantly faster reaction times on correct trials during the n-back working memory task assessed before and after the FMθ-meditation neurofeedback protocol. No significant differences in frontal theta activity or behavior were observed in the active control participants who received age and gender matched sham neurofeedback. These findings help lay the groundwork for the development of brain training protocols and neurofeedback applications that aim to train features of the mental states and traits associated with focused-attention meditation.

Religious belief and cognitive conflict sensitivity: A preregistered fMRI study

In the current preregistered fMRI study, we investigated the relationship between religiosity and behavioral and neural mechanisms of conflict processing, as a conceptual replication of the study by Inzlicht et al., (2009). Participants (N=193) performed a gender-Stroop task and afterwards completed standardized measures to assess their religiosity. As expected, the task induced cognitive conflict at the behavioral level and at a neural level this was reflected in increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). However, individual differences in religiosity were not related to performance on the Stroop task as measured in accuracy and interference effects, nor to neural markers of response conflict (correct responses vs. errors) or informational conflict (congruent vs. incongruent stimuli). Overall, we obtained moderate to strong evidence in favor of the null hypotheses that religiosity is unrelated to cognitive conflict sensitivity. We discuss the implications for the neuroscience of religion and emphasize the importance of designing studies that more directly implicate religious concepts and behaviors in an ecologically valid manner.

Toward a Refined Mindfulness Model Related to Consciousness and Based on Event-Related Potentials

Neuroimaging, behavioral, and self-report evidence suggests that there are four main cognitive mechanisms that support mindfulness: (a) self-regulation of attention, (b) improved body awareness, (c) improved emotion regulation, and (d) change in perspective on the self. In this article, we discuss these mechanisms on the basis of the event-related potential (ERP). We reviewed the ERP literature related to mindfulness and examined a data set of 29 articles. Our findings show that the neural features of mindfulness are consistently associated with the self-regulation of attention and, in most cases, reduced reactivity to emotional stimuli and improved cognitive control. On the other hand, there appear to be no studies of body awareness. We link these electrophysiological findings to models of consciousness and introduce a unified, mechanistic mindfulness model. The main idea in this refined model is that mindfulness decreases the threshold of conscious access. We end with several working hypotheses that could direct future mindfulness research and clarify our results.

State and Trait Mindfulness as Predictors of Skin Conductance Response to Stress

Mindfulness is typically understood as non-judgmental, focused attention on the present moment, although it may be conceptualized as a state, a trait, and an outcome of intervention. There is a limited understanding of the physiological effects of state and trait mindfulness, and it has been a challenge to the research community to measure these effects. This study examined whether state and trait mindfulness are associated with reduced stress response activation in healthy young adults. Fifty-four undergraduate participants completed self-ratings of state and trait mindfulness, and continuous measures of psychophysiological reactivity (i.e., skin conductance response) before, during, and after an interview about a recurrent stressor. Results indicated that individuals with greater self-reported state mindfulness had lower sympathetic psychophysiological activation than those with lower state mindfulness. Moreover, those with greater self-reported state mindfulness experienced greater drops in psychophysiological activation following a stressful task. However, differences in psychophysiological activation were not evident when comparing those with higher and lower self-reported trait mindfulness. The findings suggest that state mindfulness, or "being in the moment", rather than trait mindfulness results in less engagement of metabolically costly psychophysiological activation in response to stress. Thus, intentional mindfulness during a stressful event may be important for decreasing sympathetic activation, resulting in lower bodily stress.

Common and distinct lateralised patterns of neural coupling during focused attention, open monitoring and loving kindness meditation

Meditation has been integrated into different therapeutic interventions. To inform the evidence-based selection of specific meditation types it is crucial to understand the neural processes associated with different meditation practices. Here we explore commonalities and differences in electroencephalographic oscillatory spatial synchronisation patterns across three important meditation types. Highly experienced meditators engaged in focused attention, open monitoring, and loving kindness meditation. Improving on previous research, our approach avoids comparisons between groups that limited previous findings, while ensuring that the meditation states are reliably established. Employing a novel measure of neural coupling – the imaginary part of EEG coherence – the study revealed that all meditation conditions displayed a common connectivity pattern that is characterised by increased connectivity of (a) broadly distributed delta networks, (b) left-hemispheric theta networks with a local integrating posterior focus, and (c) right-hemispheric alpha networks, with a local integrating parieto-occipital focus. Furthermore, each meditation state also expressed specific synchronisation patterns differentially recruiting left- or right-lateralised beta networks. These observations provide evidence that in addition to global patterns, frequency-specific inter-hemispheric asymmetry is one major feature of meditation, and that mental processes specific to each meditation type are also supported by lateralised networks from fast-frequency bands.

Mindfulness Meditation Activates Altruism

Clinical evidence suggests that mindfulness meditation reduces anxiety, depression, and stress, and improves emotion regulation due to modulation of activity in neural substrates linked to the regulation of emotions and social preferences. However, less was known about whether mindfulness meditation might alter pro-social behavior. Here we examined whether mindfulness meditation activates human altruism, a component of social cooperation. Using a simple donation game, which is a real-world version of the Dictator's Game, we randomly assigned 326 subjects to a mindfulness meditation online session or control and measured their willingness to donate a portion of their payment for participation as a charitable donation. Subjects who underwent the meditation treatment donated at a 2.61 times higher rate than the control (p = 0.005), after controlling for socio-demographics. We also found a larger treatment effect of meditation among those who did not go to college (p < 0.001) and those who were under 25 years of age (p < 0.001), with both subject groups contributing virtually nothing in the control condition. Our results imply high context modularity of human altruism and the development of intervention approaches including mindfulness meditation to increase social cooperation, especially among subjects with low baseline willingness to contribute.

Diazepam and Jacobson's Progressive Relaxation Show Similar Attenuating Short-Term Effects on Stress-Related Brain Glucose Consumption

A non-pharmacological method to reduce anxiety is “progressive relaxation” (PR). The aim of the method is to reduce mental stress and associated mental processes by means of progressive suppression of muscle tension. The study was addressed to evaluate changes in brain glucose metabolism induced by PR in patients under a stressing state generated by a diagnostic medical intervention. The effect of PR was compared to a dose of sublingual diazepam, with the prediction that both interventions would be associated with a reduction in brain metabolism. Eighty-four oncological patients were assessed with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography. Maps of brain glucose distribution from 28 patients receiving PR were compared with maps from 28 patients receiving sublingual diazepam and with 28 patients with no treatment intervention. Compared to reference control subjects, the PR and diazepam groups showed a statistically significant, bilateral and generalized cortical hypometabolism. Regions showing the most prominent changes were the prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. No significant differences were identified in the direct comparison between relaxation technique and sublingual diazepam. Our findings suggest that relaxation induced by a physical/psychological procedure can be as effective as a reference anxiolytic in reducing brain activity during a stressful state.

Zen meditation neutralizes emotional evaluation, but not implicit affective processing of words

There is ample evidence that meditation can regulate emotions. It is questionable, however, whether meditation can down-regulate sensitivity to emotional experience in high-level cognitive representations such as words. The present study shows that adept Zen meditators rated the emotional valence of (low-arousal) positive and (high- and low-arousal) negative nouns significantly more neutral after a meditation session, while there was no change of valence ratings after a comparison intervention in the comparison group. Because the Zen group provided greater "openness to experience" and lower "need for achievement and performance" in the "Big Five" personality assessment, we used these scores as covariates for all analyses. We found no differential emotion effects of Zen meditation during lexical decision, but we replicated the slow-down of low-arousal negative words during lexical decision in both groups. Interestingly, Zen meditation elicited a global facilitation of all response times, which we discuss in terms of increased attentional resources after meditation.

Different Patterns of Sleep-Dependent Procedural Memory Consolidation in Vipassana Meditation Practitioners and Non-meditating Controls

Aim

Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, and sleep spindles are all implicated in the consolidation of procedural memories. Relative contributions of sleep stages and sleep spindles were previously shown to depend on individual differences in task processing. However, no studies to our knowledge have focused on individual differences in experience with Vipassana meditation as related to sleep. Vipassana meditation is a form of mental training that enhances proprioceptive and somatic awareness and alters attentional style. The goal of this study was to examine a potential role for Vipassana meditation experience in sleep-dependent procedural memory consolidation.

Methods

Groups of Vipassana meditation practitioners (N = 22) and matched meditation-naïve controls (N = 20) slept for a daytime nap in the laboratory. Before and after the nap they completed a procedural task on the Wii Fit balance platform.

Results

Meditators performed slightly better on the task before the nap, but the two groups improved similarly after sleep. The groups showed different patterns of sleep-dependent procedural memory consolidation: in meditators, task learning was positively correlated with density of slow occipital spindles, while in controls task improvement was positively associated with time in REM sleep. Sleep efficiency and sleep architecture did not differ between groups. Meditation practitioners, however, had a lower density of occipital slow sleep spindles than controls.

Conclusion

Results suggest that neuroplastic changes associated with meditation practice may alter overall sleep microarchitecture and reorganize sleep-dependent patterns of memory consolidation. The lower density of occipital spindles in meditators may mean that meditation practice compensates for some of the memory functions of sleep.

Enhanced Attentional Network by Short-Term Intensive Meditation

While recent studies have suggested behavioral effects of short-term meditation on the executive attentional functions, functional changes in the neural correlates of attentional networks after short-term meditation have been unspecified. Here, we conducted a randomized control trial to investigate the effects of a 4-day intensive meditation on the neural correlates of three attentional functions: alerting, orienting, and executive attention. Twenty-three participants in meditation practice and 14 participants in a relaxation retreat group performed attention network test (ANT) during functional magnetic resonance imaging both before and immediately after intervention. The meditation group showed significantly improved behavioral performance in the executive control network in ANT after the intervention. Moreover, neural activities in the executive control network, namely, the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), were also significantly increased during the ANT after meditation. Interestingly, neural activity in the right ACC was significantly predicted by behavioral conflict levels in each individual in the meditation group, indicating significant effects of the program on the executive control network. Moreover, brain regions associated with the alerting and orienting networks also showed enhanced activity during the ANT after the meditation. Our study provides novel evidence on the enhancement of the attentional networks at the neural level via short-term meditation. We also suggest that short-term meditation may be beneficial to individuals at high risk of cognitive deficits by improving neural mechanisms of attention.

The Effect of Meditation on Comprehension of Statements About One-Self and Others: A Pilot ERP and Behavioral Study

The main goal of this study was to examine the effect of long-term meditation practice on behavioral indicators and ERP peak characteristics during an error-recognition task, where participants were presented with emotionally negative (evoking anxiety or aggression) written sentences describing self-related or non-self-related emotional state and personality traits. In total, 200 sentences written in Russian with varying emotional coloring were presented during the task, with half of the sentences containing a grammatical error that the participants were asked to identify. The EEG was recorded in age-matched control individuals (n = 17) and two groups of Samatha meditators with relatively short- (3–5 years’ experience, n = 18) and long-term (10–30 years’ experience, n = 18) practice experience. Task performance time (TPT) and accuracy of error detection (AED) were chosen as behavioral values. Amplitude, time latency and cortical distribution of P300 and P600 peaks of ERP were used as a value of speech-related brain activity. All statistical effects of meditation were estimated, controlling for age and sex. No behavioral differences between two groups of meditators were found. General TPT was shorter for both groups of meditators compared to the control group. Non-meditators reacted significantly slower to sentences about aggression than to sentences about anxiety or non-emotional sentences, whereas no significance was found between meditator groups. Non-meditators had better AED for the sentences about one-self than for the sentences about other people, whereas the meditators did not show any significant difference. The amplitude of P300 peak in frontal and left temporal scalp regions was higher for long-term meditators in comparison with both intermediate and control groups. The latency of P300 and P600 in left frontal and temporal regions positively correlated with TPT, whereas the amplitude of P300 in these regions had a negative correlation with TPT. We demonstrate that long-term meditation practice increases the ability of an individual to process negative emotional stimuli. The differences in behavioral reactions after onset of negative information that was self-related and non-self-related, which is typical for non-meditators, disappeared due to the influence of meditation. ERP results could be interpreted as a value of increase in voluntary control over emotional state during meditational practice.

Mindfulness video game improves connectivity of the fronto-parietal attentional network in adolescents: A multi-modal imaging study

Mindfulness training has been shown to improve attention and change the underlying brain substrates in adults. Most mindfulness training programs involve a myriad of techniques, and it is difficult to attribute changes to any particular aspect of the program. Here, we created a video game, Tenacity, which models a specific mindfulness technique – focused attention on one’s breathing – and assessed its potential to train an attentional network in adolescents. A combined analysis of resting state functional connectivity (rs-FC) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) yielded convergent results – change in communication within the left fronto-parietal network after two weeks of playing Tenacity compared to a control game. Rs-FC analysis showed greater connectivity between left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) and left inferior parietal cortex (IPC) in the Tenacity group. Importantly, changes in left dlPFC – IPC rs-FC and changes in structural connectivity of the white matter tract that connects these regions –left superior longitudinal fasiculus (SLF) – were associated with changes in performance on an attention task. Finally, changes in left dlPFC – IPC rs-FC correlated with the change in left SLF structural connectivity as measured by fractional anisotropy (FA) in the Tenacity group only.

Group differences between practitioners and novices in hemispheric processing of attention and emotion before and after a session of Falun Gong qigong

We examined the hemispheric effects of Falun Gong qigong (FLG), a movement meditation practice, using a systematic approach to hemispheric function by administering the Emotion Lateralized Attention Network Test (ELANT) to measure the interaction of the Conflict Resolution, Spatial Orienting, and Emotion networks. Measuring both behavior (ELANT, DV = accuracy) and physiology (HF-HRV), we compared experienced FLG practitioners (n = 19) to novices serving as an active control group (n = 16) before and after a 91-min sequence of FLG qigong exercises. We compared practitioners and novices using a hierarchy of intrahemispheric and interhemispheric control relations that can be tested with the ELANT. Practitioners exhibited a prominent short-term effect in which they improved relative to novices on trials requiring complex interhemispheric transfer (η_P² = 0.21). Two baseline group differences, suggesting long-term effects of FLG, both involved the left hemisphere. First, practitioners were selectively spared the negative effects of processing positive emotion cues preceding left hemisphere targets (η_P² = 0.34). Second, only practitioners showed improved left-hemisphere Conflict Resolution at higher levels of HF-HRV (r² = 0.40). The data showed that FLG practitioners had increased flexibility in the management of a limited attentional resource pool that is accessible to both hemispheres.

A Single Ketamine Infusion Combined With Mindfulness-Based Behavioral Modification to Treat Cocaine Dependence: A Randomized Clinical Trial

OBJECTIVE

Research has suggested that subanesthetic doses of ketamine may work to improve cocaine-related vulnerabilities and facilitate efforts at behavioral modification. The purpose of this trial was to test whether a single ketamine infusion improved treatment outcomes in cocaine-dependent adults engaged in mindfulness-based relapse prevention.

METHODS

Fifty-five cocaine-dependent individuals were randomly assigned to receive a 40-minute intravenous infusion of ketamine (0.5 mg/kg) or midazolam (the control condition) during a 5-day inpatient stay, during which they also initiated a 5-week course of mindfulness-based relapse prevention. Cocaine use was assessed through self-report and urine toxicology. The primary outcomes were end-of-study abstinence and time to relapse (defined as first use or dropout).

RESULTS

Overall, 48.2% of individuals in the ketamine group maintained abstinence over the last 2 weeks of the trial, compared with 10.7% in the midazolam group (intent-to-treat analysis). The ketamine group was 53% less likely (hazard ratio=0.47; 95% CI=0.24, 0.92) to relapse (dropout or use cocaine) compared with the midazolam group, and craving scores were 58.1% lower in the ketamine group throughout the trial (95% CI=18.6, 78.6); both differences were statistically significant. Infusions were well tolerated, and no participants were removed from the study as a result of adverse events.

CONCLUSIONS

A single ketamine infusion improved a range of important treatment outcomes in cocaine-dependent adults engaged in mindfulness-based behavioral modification, including promoting abstinence, diminishing craving, and reducing risk of relapse. Further research is needed to replicate these promising results in a larger sample.

A single case design to examine short-term intracranial EEG patterns during focused meditation

PURPOSE

This study used a multiple crossover ABAB single case design to examine intracranial EEG data during a breath awareness meditation and an active control task.

RESULTS

Visual analyses suggest that a brief breath awareness mediation was consistently associated with increased alpha power when compared to the active control. Less consistent effects were found with theta, beta, and high gamma activity. Nonparametric tests provided additional support for this finding.

CONCLUSIONS

Acquiring intracranial EEG patterns during a meditative state may provide more insight into the physiology of meditation with less contamination of high-frequency muscle activity. While access to intracranial EEG during meditation is rarely available, single case design studies are considered adaptations of interrupted time-series designs and can provide an experimental evaluation of intervention effects.

Enhanced response inhibition and reduced midfrontal theta activity in experienced Vipassana meditators

Response inhibition - the ability to suppress inappropriate thoughts and actions - is a fundamental aspect of cognitive control. Recent research suggests that mental training by meditation may improve cognitive control. Yet, it is still unclear if and how, at the neural level, long-term meditation practice may affect (emotional) response inhibition. The present study aimed to address this outstanding question, and used an emotional Go/Nogo task and electroencephalography (EEG) to examine possible differences in behavioral and electrophysiological indices of response inhibition between Vipassana meditators and an experience-matched active control group (athletes). Behaviorally, meditators made significantly less errors than controls on the emotional Go/Nogo task, independent of the emotional context, while being equally fast. This improvement in response inhibition at the behavioral level was accompanied by a decrease in midfrontal theta activity in Nogo vs. Go trials in the meditators compared to controls. Yet, no changes in ERP indices of response inhibition, as indexed by the amplitude of the N2 and P3 components, were observed. Finally, the meditators subjectively evaluated the emotional pictures lower in valence and arousal. Collectively, these results suggest that meditation may improve response inhibition and control over emotional reactivity.

Taking neurogenesis out of the lab and into the world with MAP Train My Brain™

Neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus was rediscovered in the 1990's after being reported in the 1960's. Since then, thousands upon thousands of laboratories have reported on the characteristics and presumed functional significance of new neurons in the adult brain. In 1999, we reported that mental training with effortful learning could extend the survival of these new cells and in the same year, others reported that physical training with exercise could increase their proliferation. Based on these studies and others, we developed MAP Train My Brain™, which is a brain fitness program for humans. The program combines mental and physical (MAP) training through 30-min of effortful meditation followed by 30-min of aerobic exercise. This program, when practiced twice a week for eight weeks reduced depressive symptoms and ruminative thoughts in men and women with major depressive disorder (MDD) while increasing synchronized brain activity during cognitive control. It also reduced anxiety and depression and increased oxygen consumption in young mothers who had been homeless. Moreover, engaging in the program reduced trauma-related cognitions and ruminative thoughts while increasing self-worth in adult women with a history of sexual trauma. And finally, the combination of mental and physical training together was more effective than either activity alone. Albeit effortful, this program does not require inordinate amounts of time or money to practice and can be easily adopted into everyday life. MAP Training exemplifies how we as neuroscientists can take discoveries made in the laboratory out into the world for the benefit of others.

Sexual trauma history is associated with reduced orbitofrontal network strength in substance-dependent women

AIM

Substance use disorders (SUDs) are highly comorbid with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD-SUD comorbidity is associated with greater functional impairments and relapse risk. Women with SUDs experience markedly higher rates of trauma and PTSD compared to men with SUDs, particularly due to sexual and domestic abuse. Despite the strong association between trauma exposure and SUDs, the neurobiological correlates are understudied, particularly among females with SUDs. However, there is indication of abnormal somatic and interoceptive processing in women with PTSD. The present study examines interoception-linked differences in intrinsic brain networks in a group of women with SUDs and varying histories of trauma exposure, some of whom have a current PTSD diagnosis.

METHODS

Pre-intervention data were analyzed from a subset (N = 43) of women in SUD residential treatment recruited for a mindfulness-based intervention efficacy clinical trial. Participants diagnosed with PTSD (n = 14) or not (n = 29) performed a task which involved attending to the somatic and visceral sensations of the breathing cycle (interoception) while undergoing a functional MRI (fMRI) scan. FMRI analysis employed independent components analysis and dual regression. First, we assessed differences in functional connectivity of interoception-modulated functional networks among those with and without PTSD. Second, we tested associations between network strength and lifetime sexual violence exposure across all participants on networks that showed significant group differences.

RESULTS

PTSD diagnosis was associated with reduced functional connectivity of an orbitofrontal network with the precuneus, mid-posterior insula, lateral prefrontal cortex and angular gyrus. OFC network strength was inversely associated with sexual violence exposure over-and-above the contribution of PTSD status alone.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide a novel network-level account of brain activity associated with PTSD among women with SUDs, which may inform treatment response in this subpopulation.

Enhanced decision-making through multimodal training

A central aim of research in the psychological and decision sciences is to establish interventions that enhance performance, investigating the efficacy of modern approaches to improve human inference and decision-making. Whereas the decision sciences have established interventions to reduce decision biases by promoting strategies for critical thought and reasoning, methods from psychology have instead focused on enhancing cognition through skill-based training of executive functions. Contemporary research in psychology has engaged these operations through multi-modal interventions designed to enhance cognition and physical health through training of executive functions, mindfulness meditation, and physical fitness. Despite the comparable aims of research in the psychological and decision sciences, the efficacy of multi-modal interventions to enhance decision-making remain to be established. We therefore conducted a comprehensive, 16-week, randomized controlled trial (RCT) to investigate this issue, enrolling 160 healthy adults in one of four interventions: (1) high-intensity cardioresistance fitness training (HICRT); (2) HICRT and cognitive training of core executive functions; (3) HICRT and cognitive training, along with mindfulness meditation training; or (4) active control training. The results of our RCT demonstrate that HICRT training and multi-modal interventions that also incorporate cognitive training and mindfulness meditation have beneficial effects on decision-making competence. The observed pattern of findings motivate the application of modern interventions from psychology and cognitive neuroscience to enhance human judgment and decision-making in complex, real-world environments.

Meditation music improved the quality of suturing in an experimental bypass procedure

BACKGROUND

Neurosurgeons are vulnerable to additional noise in their natural operating environment. Noise exposure is associated with reduced cognitive function, inability to concentrate, and nervousness. Mediation music provides an opportunity to create a calmer environment which may reduce stress during surgery.

METHODS

A pilot study was performed to find a suitable task, meditation music of surgeon's choice, and operation noise and to reach a certain level of training. For the main experiment, two neurosurgeons with different microsurgical experience used real operation noise and meditation music with delta waves as mediating music. Each surgeon performed 10 training bypasses (five with noise and five with music) with 16 stitches in each bypass. The total time to complete 16 stitches, a number of unachieved movements (N.U.Ms), length of thread consumed, and distribution of the stitches were quantified from the recorded videos and compared in both groups.

RESULTS

A N.U.Ms were significantly reduced from 109 ± 38 with operation room (OR) noise to 38 ± 13 (p < 0.05) with meditating music in novice surgeon. Similar results were found in the experienced surgeon performing the same task [from 29 ± 6.94 to 14 ± 3.36 (p < 0.05)]. The total time utilized for the sixteen stitches was slightly improved (not significantly) in the novice surgeon and unchanged in the experienced surgeon. However, the thread length used for 16 stitches was significantly different with OR noise in comparison to meditating music in both surgeons. The distribution stitches showed a non-significant trend toward a uniform distribution with meditation music in both surgeons.

CONCLUSIONS

Meditation music of surgeon's choice is a simple method that improved quality of bypass suturing in an experimental bypass procedure.

The Effects of Different Stages of Mindfulness Meditation Training on Emotion Regulation

This study examined mood enhancement effects from 4-week focusing attention (FA) meditation and 4-week open monitoring (OM) meditation in an 8-week mindfulness training program designed for ordinary individuals. Forty participants were randomly assigned to a training group or a control group. All participants were asked to perform cognitive tasks and subjective scale tests at three time points (pre-, mid-, and post-tests). Compared with the participants in the control group, the participants in the meditation training group showed significantly decreased anxiety, depression, and rumination scores; significantly increased mindfulness scores; and significantly reduced reaction times (RTs) in the incongruent condition for the Stroop task. The present study demonstrated that 8-week mindfulness meditation training could effectively enhance the level of mindfulness and improve emotional states. Moreover, FA meditation could partially improve individual levels of mindfulness and effectively improve mood, while OM meditation could further improve individual levels of mindfulness and maintain a positive mood.

Closed-loop digital meditation improves sustained attention in young adults

Attention is a fundamental cognitive process that is critical for essentially all aspects of higher-order cognition and real-world activities. Younger generations have deeply embraced information technology and multitasking in their personal lives, school and the workplace, creating myriad challenges to their attention. While improving sustained attention in healthy young adults would be beneficial, enhancing this ability has proven notoriously difficult in this age group. Here we show that 6 weeks of engagement with a meditation-inspired, closed-loop software program (MediTrain) delivered on mobile devices led to gains in both sustained attention and working memory in healthy young adults. These improvements were associated with positive changes in key neural signatures of attentional control (frontal theta inter-trial coherence and parietal P3b latency), as measured by electroencephalography. Our findings suggest the utility of delivering aspects of the ancient practice of focused-attention meditation in a modern, technology-based approach and its benefits on enhancing sustained attention.

Enhancing Human Cognition Through Vajrayana Practices

Phenomenological studies suggest the existence of enhanced cognitive states, termed flow or peak experiences, in which specific cognitive processes (e.g., attention, perception) can be dramatically increased for limited durations. Here we review new scientific evidence that shows that specific types of meditation that developed out of certain religious traditions such as Vajrayana (Tantric Buddhism) and Hindu Tantra lead to the enhanced cognitive states, characterized by heightened sympathetic activation and phasic alertness (a significant temporary boost in focused attention). This is in contrast to the meditation practices (Shamatha, Vipassana) from other traditions such as Theravada and Mahayana that elicit heightened parasympathetic activity and tonic alertness. Such findings validate Buddhist scriptural descriptions of heightened arousal during Vajrayana practices and a calm and alert state of mind during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation. The finding demonstrates the existence of enhanced cognitive states-the unique and energized states of consciousness characterized by a dramatic boost in focused attention.

Martial Arts "Kendo" and the Motivation Network During Attention Processing: An fMRI Study

Japanese martial arts, Budo, have been reported to improve cognitive function, especially attention. However, the underlying neural mechanisms of the effect of Budo on attention processing has not yet been investigated. Kendo, a type of fencing using bamboo swords, is one of the most popular forms of Budo worldwide. We investigated the difference in functional connectivity (FC) between Kendo players (KPs) and non-KPs (NKPs) during an attention-related auditory oddball paradigm and during rest. The analyses focused on the brain network related to “motivation.” Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) and task-based fMRI using the oddball paradigm were performed in healthy male volunteers (14 KPs and 11 NKPs). Group differences in FC were tested using CONN-software within the motivation network, which consisted of 22 brain regions defined by a previous response-conflict task-based fMRI study with a reward cue. Daily general physical activities were assessed using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ). We also investigated the impact of major confounders, namely, smoking habits, alcohol consumption, IPAQ score, body mass index (BMI), and reaction time (RT) in the oddball paradigm. Resting-state fMRI revealed that KPs had a significantly lower FC than NKPs between the right nucleus accumbens and right frontal eye field (FEF) within the motivation network. Conversely, KPs exhibited a significantly higher FC than NKPs between the left intraparietal sulcus (IPS) and the left precentral gyrus (PCG) within the network during the auditory oddball paradigm [statistical thresholds, False Discovery Rate (FDR) < 0.05]. These results remained significant after controlling for major covariates. Our results suggest that attenuated motivation network integrity at rest together with enhanced motivation network integrity during attentional demands might underlie the instantaneous concentration abilities of KPs.

Mindfulness-based therapy modulates default-mode network connectivity in patients with opioid dependence

Recently, mindfulness-based programs have shown promising clinical effects in the treatment of substance-use disorders (SUD). While several studies linked mindfulness to decreased default mode network (DMN) connectivity in meditators, only a few studies investigated its effects in patients with SUD. This study aimed to detect changes in DMN connectivity in opiate dependent patients receiving mindfulness based therapy (MBT) during their first month of treatment. Data from 32 patients that were assigned to MBT or treatment as usual (TAU) groups was investigated using resting-state functional MRI at 1.5 T before and after four weeks of treatment. Independent Component Analysis was used to investigate distinct (anterior vs. posterior) DMN subsystems. Connectivity changes after treatment were related to measures of impulsivity, distress tolerance and mindfulness. Increased mindfulness scores after treatment were found in patients receiving MBT compared to TAU. Within the anterior DMN, decreased right inferior frontal cortical connectivity was detected in patients who received MBT compared to TAU. In addition, within the MBT-group decreased right superior frontal cortex connectivity was detected after treatment. Inferior frontal cortex function was significantly associated with mindfulness measures. The data suggest that MBT can be useful during abstinence from opiates. In opiate-dependent patients distinct functional connectivity changes within the DMN are associated with MBT.

On the role of mindfulness and compassion skills in students' coping, well-being, and development across the transition to college: A conceptual analysis

In this paper, we aim to integrate the current conceptual approaches to stress and coping processes during the college transition with the potential role of mindfulness and compassion (MC) skills on students' well-being and development. First, we provide an overview of the issues and challenges emerging adults are facing during the transition to college, drawing on the revised version of the transactional stress model by Lazarus and Folkman (1984). Second, we introduce a conceptual model of adaptive stress and coping processes enhanced by MC skills to positively impact the appraisal and coping resources and emerging adults' mental health. Specifically, MC skills may play an important role in promoting a healthy stress response by strengthening emerging adults' socioemotional competencies and supporting the development of adaptive appraisal and coping resources, including processes antecedent and consequent to a coping encounter. In particular, MC skills were hypothesized to enhance (a) preparedness to cope, (b) productive stress response through adaptive appraisals and skillful deployment of coping resources, and (c) healthy postcoping reflections. Therefore, MC skills may be a useful preventive tool to strengthen emerging adults' ability to adjust to a new academic environment and fulfil the developmental tasks of this period.

Time perception and the experience of agency in meditation and hypnosis

Mindfulness meditation and hypnosis are related in opposing ways to awareness of intentions. The cold control theory of hypnosis proposes that hypnotic responding involves the experience of involuntariness while performing an actually intentional action. Hypnosis therefore relies upon inaccurate metacognition about intentional actions and experiences. Mindfulness meditation centrally involves awareness of intentions and is associated with improved metacognitive access to intentions. Therefore, mindfulness meditators and highly hypnotizable people may lie at opposite ends of a spectrum with regard to metacognitive access to intention‐related information. Here we review the theoretical background and evidence for differences in the metacognition of intentions in these groups, as revealed by chronometric measures of the awareness of voluntary action: the timing of an intention to move (Libet's “W” judgments) and the compressed perception of time between an intentional action and its outcome (“intentional binding”). We review these measures and critically evaluate their proposed connection to the experience of volition and sense of agency.

Hacking the Brain: Dimensions of Cognitive Enhancement

In an increasingly complex information society, demands for cognitive functioning are growing steadily. In recent years, numerous strategies to augment brain function have been proposed. Evidence for their efficacy (or lack thereof) and side effects has prompted discussions about ethical, societal, and medical implications. In the public debate, cognitive enhancement is often seen as a monolithic phenomenon. On a closer look, however, cognitive enhancement turns out to be a multifaceted concept: There is not one cognitive enhancer that augments brain function per se, but a great variety of interventions that can be clustered into biochemical, physical, and behavioral enhancement strategies. These cognitive enhancers differ in their mode of action, the cognitive domain they target, the time scale they work on, their availability and side effects, and how they differentially affect different groups of subjects. Here we disentangle the dimensions of cognitive enhancement, review prominent examples of cognitive enhancers that differ across these dimensions, and thereby provide a framework for both theoretical discussions and empirical research.

Imaging & neuropsychological changes in brain with spiritual practice: A pilot study

Background & objectives:

Some studies have systematically assessed the effects of spiritual practice (SP) on the brain using combined neuropsychological testing and functional imaging. The objective of the present study was to compare imaging and neuropsychological changes in healthy individuals after SP and those with only physical exercise.

Methods:

Healthy adult male volunteers, aged 25-45 yr were randomized into two groups. Group 1 (SP group) underwent the SP and group 2 (controls) did brisk walk for 30 min daily. Detailed neuropsychological evaluation, resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and brain ^99mTc ethyl cysteinate dimer single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) were carried out for both groups before and three months after intervention.

Results:

Post-intervention, resting state fMRI showed increased connections of left precuneus (in the posterior cingulate cortex area of default mode network) in group 1 and increased left frontal connections in group 2. The neuropsychological tests showed significant improvement in ‘Speed of Processing’ (Digit Symbol Test) in group 1 and in Focused Attention (Trail Making A) in group 2. The SPECT data in group 1 showed significant improvement in perfusion of the frontal areas, with relatively lesser improvement in parietal areas. Group 2 showed significant improvement in perfusion predominantly in parietal areas, as compared to frontal areas. In addition, significantly improved mood was reported by group 1 and not by group 2.

Interpretation & conclusions:

This pilot study shows important functional imaging and neuropsychological changes in the brain with SP.

Evolution from four mental states to the highest state of consciousness: A neurophysiological basis of meditation as defined in yoga texts

This chapter provides a theoretical introduction to states of consciousness and reviews neuroscientific investigations of meditation. The different states of consciousness consist of four mental states, i.e., cancalata (random thinking), ekagrata (non-meditative focusing), dharna (focused meditation), and dhyana (meditation) as defined in yoga texts. Meditation is a self-regulated mental process associated with deep relaxation and increased internalized attention. Scientific investigations on meditation reported changes in electrophysiological signals and neuroimaging measures. But most outcomes of meditation studies showed inconsistent results, this may be due to heterogeneity in meditation methods and techniques evolved in the last 200 years. Traditionally, the features of meditation include the capacity to sustain a heightened awareness of thoughts, behaviors, emotions, and perceptions. Generally, meditation involves non-reactive effortless monitoring of the content of experience from moment to moment. Focused meditation practice involves awareness on a single object and open monitoring meditation is a non-directive meditation involved attention in breathing, mantra, or sound. Therefore, results of few empirical studies of advanced meditators or beginners remain tentative. This is an attempt to compile the meditation-related changes in electrophysiological and neuroimaging processes among experienced and novice practitioners.

Spontaneous eye movements during focused-attention mindfulness meditation

Oculometric measures have been proven to be useful markers of mind-wandering during visual tasks such as reading. However, little is known about ocular activity during mindfulness meditation, a mental practice naturally involving mind-wandering episodes. In order to explore this issue, we extracted closed-eyes ocular movement measurements via a covert technique (EEG recordings) from expert meditators during two repetitions of a 7-minute mindfulness meditation session, focusing on the breath, and two repetitions of a 7-minute instructed mind-wandering task. Power spectral density was estimated on both the vertical and horizontal components of eye movements. The results show a significantly smaller average amplitude of eye movements in the delta band (1–4 Hz) during mindfulness meditation than instructed mind-wandering. Moreover, participants’ meditation expertise correlated significantly with this average amplitude during both tasks, with more experienced meditators generally moving their eyes less than less experienced meditators. These findings suggest the potential use of this measure to detect mind-wandering episodes during mindfulness meditation and to assess meditation performance.