Targeting breast cancer stem cells. Mol Oncol. 2010;4:404-419. [PMID: 20599450 DOI: 10.1016/j.molonc.2010.06.005]

Cancer stem cells and cancer therapy

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a subpopulation of tumour cells that possess the stem cell properties of self-renewal and differentiation. Stem cells might be the target cells responsible for malignant transformation, and tumour formation may be a disorder of stem cell self-renewal pathway. Epigenetic alterations and mutations of genes involved in signal transmissions may promote the formation of CSCs. These cells have been identified in many solid tumours including breast, brain, lung, prostate, testis, ovary, colon, skin, liver, and also in acute myeloid leukaemia. The CSC theory clarifies not only the issue of tumour initiation, development, metastasis and relapse, but also the ineffectiveness of conventional cancer therapies. Treatments directed against the bulk of the cancer cells may produce striking responses but they are unlikely to result in long-term remissions if the rare CSCs are not targeted. In this review, we consider the properties of CSCs and possible strategies for controlling the viability and tumourigenecity of these cells, including therapeutic models for selective elimination of CSCs and induction of their proper differentiation.

Breast cancer stem cells: treatment resistance and therapeutic opportunities

The clinical and pathologic heterogeneity of human breast cancer has long been recognized. Now, molecular profiling has enriched our understanding of breast cancer heterogeneity and yielded new prognostic and predictive information. Despite recent therapeutic advances, including the HER2-specific agent, trastuzumab, locoregional and systemic disease recurrence remain an ever-present threat to the health and well being of breast cancer survivors. By definition, disease recurrence originates from residual treatment-resistant cells, which regenerate at least the initial breast cancer phenotype. The discovery of the normal breast stem cell has re-ignited interest in the identity and properties of breast cancer stem-like cells and the relationship of these cells to the repopulating ability of treatment-resistant cells. The cancer stem cell model of breast cancer development contrasts with the clonal evolution model, whereas the mixed model draws on features of both. Although the origin and identity of breast cancer stem-like cells is contentious, treatment-resistant cells survive and propagate only because aberrant and potentially druggable signaling pathways are recruited. As a means to increase the rates of breast cancer cure, several approaches to specific targeting of the treatment-resistant cell population exist and include methods for addressing the problem of radioresistance in particular.

Epithelial-mesenchymal transition and cancer stem cells: a dangerously dynamic duo in breast cancer progression

Aberrant activation of a latent embryonic program - known as the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) - can endow cancer cells with the migratory and invasive capabilities associated with metastatic competence. The induction of EMT entails the loss of epithelial characteristics and the de novo acquisition of a mesenchymal phenotype. In breast cancer, the EMT state has been associated with cancer stem cell properties including expression of the stem cell-associated CD44⁺/CD24^-/low antigenic profile, self-renewal capabilities and resistance to conventional therapies. Intriguingly, EMT features are also associated with stem cells isolated from the normal mouse mammary gland and human breast reduction tissues as well as the highly aggressive metaplastic and claudin-low breast tumor subtypes. This has implications for the origin of these breast tumors as it remains unclear whether they derive from cells that have undergone EMT or whether they represent an expansion of a pre-existing stem cell population that expresses EMT-associated markers to begin with. In the present review, we consider the current evidence connecting EMT and stem cell attributes and discuss the ramifications of these newly recognized links for our understanding of the emergence of distinct breast cancer subtypes and breast cancer progression.

Deconstructing the molecular portraits of breast cancer

Breast cancer is a heterogeneous disease in terms of histology, therapeutic response, dissemination patterns to distant sites, and patient outcomes. Global gene expression analyses using high‐throughput technologies have helped to explain much of this heterogeneity and provided important new classifications of cancer patients. In the last decade, genomic studies have established five breast cancer intrinsic subtypes (Luminal A, Luminal B, HER2‐enriched, Claudin‐low, Basal‐like) and a Normal Breast‐like group. In this review, we dissect the most recent data on this genomic classification of breast cancer with a special focus on the Claudin‐low subtype, which appears enriched for mesenchymal and stem cell features. In addition, we discuss how the combination of standard clinical‐pathological markers with the information provided by these genomic entities might help further understand the biological complexity of this disease, increase the efficacy of current and novel therapies, and ultimately improve outcomes for breast cancer patients.

Immunohistochemical detection of epithelialmesenchymal transition associated with stemness phenotype in anaplastic thyroid carcinoma

Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma (ATC) is a highly aggressive neoplasm resistant to radiation and chemotherapy. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) generating cells with stem cell characteristics have been reported to be associated with chemoradioresistance in cultured cells. However, EMT and stem cell properties in ATC have not been fully investigated. In this study, we retrieved 2 thyroidectomy specimens of ATC with coexisting well differentiated thyroid carcinomas (DTCs) including one papillary carcinoma (PTC) and one follicular carcinoma (FTC). We used im-munohistochemistry to examine the expression of stem cell markers (nestin, CD133 and CD44) and a marker for EMT (E-cadherin). Intense expressions of nestin, CD133 and CD44, and no expression of E-cadherin were observed in both ATCs. In contrast, the PTC and FTC, and non-neoplastic thyroid tissue in both cases were negative for nestin and positive for E-cadherin. The expressions of CD133 and CD44 were variable in the PTC, FTC, and non-neoplastic thyroid tissue and were at a lower level of expression of these markers in the overall pattern. The results confirmed EMT, demonstrated the stem cell phenotype in ATC, and revealed the difference in expression of these markers between ATC and DTCs/non-neoplastic thyroid tissue. Nestin may be the most specific marker for stemness in ATC by immuno-histochemial staining. The results warrant future studies on a large series of cases in order to gain the understanding of the tumor biology and to provide molecular basis for restoring the sensitivities to clinical therapies.

Targeting breast cancer stem cells

The cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis postulates that tumors are maintained by a self-renewing CSC population that is also capable of differentiating into non-self-renewing cell populations that constitute the bulk of the tumor. Although, the CSC hypothesis does not directly address the cell of origin of cancer, it is postulated that tissue-resident stem or progenitor cells are the most common targets of transformation. Clinically, CSCs are predicted to mediate tumor recurrence after chemo- and radiation-therapy due to the relative inability of these modalities to effectively target CSCs. If this is the case, then CSC must be efficiently targeted to achieve a true cure. Similarities between normal and malignant stem cells, at the levels of cell-surface proteins, molecular pathways, cell cycle quiescence, and microRNA signaling present challenges in developing CSC-specific therapeutics. Approaches to targeting CSCs include the development of agents targeting known stem cell regulatory pathways as well as unbiased high-throughput siRNA or small molecule screening. Based on studies of pathways present in normal stem cells, recent work has identified potential "Achilles heals" of CSC, whereas unbiased screening provides opportunities to identify new pathways utilized by CSC as well as develop potential therapeutic agents. Here, we review both approaches and their potential to effectively target breast CSC.

Fatal CNS trichinosis

Background

The current successful clinical use of agents promoting robust anti-tumor immunity in cancer patients warrants noting that radiation therapy (RT) induces immunogenic cell death (ICD) of tumor cells, which can generate anti-tumor immune responses. However, breast cancer stem cells (BCSCs) are resistant to RT and RT alone usually failed to mount an anti-tumor immune response.

Methods

High aldehyde dehydrogenase activity (ALDH)bright and CD44+/CD24−/ESA+ cancer cells, previously shown to have BCSC properties, were isolated from human MDA-MB-231 and UACC-812 breast cancer cell lines by flow cytometer. Flow sorted BCSCs and non-BCSCs were further tested for their characteristic of stemness by mammosphere formation assay. Induction of ICD in BCSCs vs. non-BCSCs in response to different in vitro treatments was determined by assessing cell apoptosis and a panel of damage-associated molecular pattern molecules (DAMPs) by flow and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

Results

We found that ionizing radiation (IR) triggered a lower level of ICD in BCSCs than non-BCSCs. We then investigated the ability of disulfiram/cooper (DSF/Cu) which is known to preferentially induce cancer stem cells (CSCs) apoptosis to enhance IR-induced ICD of BCSCs. The results indicate that DSF/Cu induced a similar extent of IDC in both BCSCs and non-BCSCs and rendered IR-resistant BCSCs as sensitive as non-BCSCs to IR-induced ICD. IR and DSF/Cu induced ICD of BCSCs could be partly reversed by pre-treatment of BCSCs with a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger and XBP1s inhibitors.

Conclusion

DSF/Cu rendered IR-resistant BCSCs as sensitive as non-BCSCs to IR-induced ICD. Our data demonstrate the potential of IR and DSF/Cu to induce ICD in BCSCs and non-BCSCs leading to robust immune responses against not only differentiated/differentiating breast cancer cells but also BCSCs, the root cause of cancer formation, progression and metastasis.

Graphical abstract