Atmospheric Trends and Lifetime of CH3CCI3 and Global OH Concentrations

Simultaneous Quantitative Resolution of Atorvastatin Calcium and Fenofibrate in Pharmaceutical Preparation by Using Derivative Ratio Spectrophotometry and Chemometric Calibrations

In the present work, five different spectrophotometric techniques for simultaneous determination of formulations containing atorvastatin calcium (ATOR) and fenofibrate (FENO) in various combinations are described. In ratio spectra derivative spectrophotometry, analytical signals were measured at wavelengths corresponding to either maximums or minimums for both drugs in first derivative spectra of ratio spectra obtained by using either spectrum as divisor. For the remaining four methods using chemometric techniques, namely, classical least squares (CLS), inverse least squares (ILS), principal component regression (PCR) and partial least squares (PLS), the calibrations were constructed by using the absorption data matrix corresponding to the concentration data matrix, with measurements in the range of 231 - 310 nm (Deltalambda = 1 nm) in their zero-order spectra. The linearity range was found to be 4 - 22 and 2 - 20 microg/ml for ATOR and FENO, respectively. The validity of the proposed methods was successfully assessed for analyses of both drugs in laboratory-prepared mixtures and in commercial tablet formulations.

Removal of methyl chloroform in a coastal salt marsh of eastern China

The atmospheric burden of methyl chloroform (CH(3)CCl(3)) is still considerable due to its long atmospheric lifetime, although CH(3)CCl(3) emissions have declined considerably since it was included into the Montreal Protocol. Moreover, CH(3)CCl(3) emissions are used to estimate hydroxyl radical (OH) levels, trends, and hemispheric distributions, and thus the mass balance of the trace gas in the atmosphere is critical for characterizing OH concentrations. Salt marshes may be a potential sink for CH(3)CCl(3) due to its anoxic environment and abundant organic matter in sediments. In this study, seasonal dynamics of CH(3)CCl(3) fluxes were measured using static flux chambers from April 2004 to January 2005, along an elevational gradient of a coastal salt marsh in eastern China. To estimate the contribution of higher plants to the gas flux, plant aboveground biomass was experimentally harvested and the flux difference between the treatment and the intact was examined. In addition, the flux was analyzed in relation to soil and weather conditions. Along the elevational gradient, the salt marsh generally acted as a net sink of CH(3)CCl(3) in the growing season (from April to October). The flux of CH(3)CCl(3) ranged between -3.38 and -32.03 nmol m(-2)d(-1) (positive for emission and negative for consumption), and the maximum negative rate occurred at the cordgrass marsh. However, the measurements made during inundation indicated that the mudflat was a net source of CH(3)CCl(3). In the non-growing season (from November to March), the vegetated marsh was a minor source of CH(3)CCl(3) when soil was frozen, the emission rate ranging from 3.43 to 7.77 nmol m(-2)d(-1). However, the mudflat was a minor sink of CH(3)CCl(3) whether it was frozen or not in the non-growing season. Overall, the coastal salt marsh in eastern China was a large sink for the gas, because the magnitude of consumption rate was lager than that of emission, and because the duration of the growing season was longer than that of the non-growing season. Plant aboveground biomass had a great effect on the flux. Comparative analysis showed that the direction and magnitude of the effect of higher plants on the flux of CH(3)CCl(3) depended on timing of sampling vegetation type. In the growing season the plant biomass decreased the gas flux and acted as a large sink of the gas, whereas it presented as a minor source in the non-growing season. However, the mechanism underlying plant uptake process is not clear. The CH(3)CCl(3) flux was positively related to the dissolved salt concentration and organic matter content in soil, as well as light intensity, but it was negatively related to soil temperature, sulfate concentrations, and initial ambient atmospheric concentrations of CH(3)CCl(3). Our observations have important implications for estimation of the tropospheric lifetime of CH(3)CCl(3) and global OH concentration from the global budget concentration of CH(3)CCl(3).

Rate Coefficients for the Reactions of OH with CF3CH2CH3 (HFC-263fb), CF3CHFCH2F (HFC-245eb), and CHF2CHFCHF2 (HFC-245ea) between 238 and 375 K

Rate coefficients for reaction of the hydroxyl radical (OH) with three hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) CF3CH2CH3, HFC-263fb, (k1); CF3CHFCH2F, HFC-245eb, (k2); and CHF2CHFCHF2, HFC-245ea, (k3); which are suggested as potential substitutes to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), were measured using pulsed laser photolysis-laser-induced fluorescence (PLP-LIF) between 235 and 375 K. The Arrhenius expressions obtained are k1(T) = (4.36 +/- 0.72) x 10(-12) exp[-(1290 +/- 40)/T] cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1); k2(T) = (1.23 +/- 0.18) x 10(-12) exp[-(1250 +/- 40)/T] cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1); k3(T) = (1.91 +/- 0.42) x 10(-12) exp[-(1375 +/- 100)/T] cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1). The quoted uncertainties are 95% confidence limits and include estimated systematic errors. The present results are discussed and compared with rate coefficients available in the literature. Our results are also compared with those calculated using structure activity relationships (SAR) for fluorinated compounds. The IR absorption cross-sections at room temperature for these compounds were measured over the range of 500 to 4000 cm-1. The global warming potentials (GWPs) of CF3CH2CH3(HFC-263fb), CF3CHFCH2F(HFC-245eb), and CHF2CHFCHF2(HFC-245ea) were calculated to be 234, 962, and 723 for a 20-year horizon; 70, 286, and 215 for a 100-year horizon; and 22, 89, and 68 for a 500-year horizon; and the atmospheric lifetimes of these compounds are 0.8, 2.5, and 2.6 years, respectively. It is concluded that these compounds are acceptable substitutes for CFCs in terms of their impact on Earth's climate.

Characterization of volatile organic compounds and odorants associated with swine barn particulate matter using solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry–olfactometry

Swine operations can affect air quality by emissions of odor, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and other gases, and particulate matter (PM). Particulate matter has been proposed to be an important pathway for carrying odor. However, little is known about the odor-VOCs-PM interactions. In this research, continuous PM sampling was conducted simultaneously with three collocated TEOM 1400a analyzers inside a 1000-head swine finish barn located in central Iowa. Each TEOM was fitted with total suspended particulate (TSP), PM-10, PM-2.5 and PM-1 preseparators. Used filters were stored in 40 mL vials and transported to the laboratory. VOCs adsorbed/absorbed to dust were allowed to equilibrate with vial headspace. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) Carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) 85 microm fibers were used to extract VOCs. Simultaneous chemical and olfactometry analyses of VOCs and odor associated with swine PM were completed using a gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-olfactometry (GC-MS-O) system. Fifty VOCs categorized into nine chemical function groups were identified and confirmed with standards. Five of them are classified as hazardous air pollutants. VOCs were characterized with a wide range of molecular weight, boiling points, vapor pressures, water solubilities, odor detection thresholds, and atmospheric reactivities. All characteristic swine VOCs and odorants were present in PM and their abundance was proportional to PM size. However, the majority of VOCs and characteristic swine odorants were preferentially bound to smaller-size PM. The findings indicate that a significant fraction of swine odor can be carried by PM. Research of the effects of PM control on swine odor mitigation is warranted.

Rate coefficients for the gas-phase reaction of OH radicals with dimethyl sulfide: temperature and O2partial pressure dependence

Rate coefficients for the gas-phase reaction of hydroxyl (OH) radicals with dimethyl sulfide (CH(3)SCH(3), DMS) have been determined using a relative rate technique. The experiments were performed under different conditions of temperature (250-299 K) and O(2) partial pressure (approximately 0 Torr O(2)-380 Torr O(2)), at a total pressure of 760 Torr bath gas (N(2) + O(2)), in a 336 l reaction chamber, using long path in situ Fourier transform (FTIR) absorption spectroscopy to monitor the disappearance rates of DMS and the reference compounds (ethene, propene and 2-methylpropene). OH was produced by the photolysis of H(2)O(2). The following Arrhenius expressions adequately describe the rate coefficients as a function of temperature (units are cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1)): k = (1.56 +/- 0.20) x 10(-12) exp[(369 +/- 27)/T], for approximately 0 Torr O(2); (1.31 +/- 0.08) x 10(-14) exp[(1910 +/- 69)/T], for 155 Torr O(2); (5.18 +/- 0.71) x 10(-14) exp[(1587 +/- 24)/T], for 380 Torr O(2). The results are compared with previous investigations.

Generalized hybrid-orbital method for combining density functional theory with molecular mechanicals

The generalized hybrid orbital (GHO) method has previously been formulated for combining molecular mechanics with various levels of quantum mechanics, in particular semiempirical neglect of diatomic differential overlap theory, ab initio Hartree-Fock theory, and self-consistent charge density functional tight-binding theory. To include electron-correlation effects accurately and efficiently in GHO calculations, we extend the GHO method to density functional theory in the generalized-gradient approximation and hybrid density functional theory (denoted by GHO-DFT and GHO-HDFT, respectively) using Gaussian-type orbitals as basis functions. In the proposed GHO-(H)DFT formalism, charge densities in auxiliary hybrid orbitals are included to calculate the total electron density. The orthonormality constraints involving the auxiliary Kohn-Sham orbitals are satisfied by carrying out the hybridization in terms of a set of Löwdin symmetrically orthogonalized atomic basis functions. Analytical gradients are formulated for GHO-(H)DFT by incorporating additional forces associated with GHO basis transformations. Scaling parameters are introduced for some of the one-electron integrals and are optimized to obtain the correct charges and geometry near the QM/MM boundary region. The GHO-(H)DFT method based on the generalized gradient approach (GGA) (BLYP and mPWPW91) and HDFT methods (B3 LYP, mPW1PW91, and MPW1 K) is tested-for geometries and atomic charges-against a set of small molecules. The following quantities are tested: 1) the C--C stretch potential in ethane, 2) the torsional barrier for internal rotation around the central C--C bond in n-butane, 3) proton affinities for a set of alcohols, amines, thiols, and acids, 4) the conformational energies of alanine dipeptide, and 5) the barrier height of the hydrogen-atom transfer between n-C4H10 and n-C4H9, where the reaction center is described at the MPW1 K/6-31G(d) level of theory.

Gas-phase rate coefficients for the reactions of nitrate radicals with (Z)-pent-2-ene, (E)-pent-2-ene, (Z)-hex-2-ene, (E)-hex-2-ene, (Z)-hex-3-ene, (E)-hex-3-ene and (E)-3-methylpent-2-ene at room temperature

Rate coefficients for reactions of nitrate radicals (NO3) with (Z)-pent-2-ene, (E)-pent-2-ene, (Z)-hex-2-ene, (E)-hex-2-ene, (Z)-hex-3-ene, (E)-hex-3-ene and (E)-3-methylpent-2-ene were determined to be (6.55 +/- 0.78)x 10(-13) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1), (3.78 +/- 0.45)x 10(-13) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1), (5.30 +/- 0.73)x 10(-13) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), (3.83 +/- 0.47)x 10(-13) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), (4.37 +/- 0.49)x 10(-13) cm(3) molecule(-1) s(-1), (3.61 +/- 0.40)x 10(-13) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1) and (8.9 +/- 1.5)x 10(-12) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1), respectively. We performed kinetic experiments at room temperature and atmospheric pressure using a relative-rate technique with GC-FID analysis. The experimental results demonstrate a surprisingly large cis-trans(Z-E) effect, particularly in the case of the pent-2-enes, where the ratio of rate coefficients is ca. 1.7. Rate coefficients are discussed in terms of electronic and steric influences, and our results give some insight into the effects of chain length and position of the double bond on the reaction of NO3 with unsaturated hydrocarbons. Atmospheric lifetimes were calculated with respect to important oxidants in the troposphere for the alkenes studied, and NO3-initiated oxidation is found to be the dominant degradation route for (Z)-pent-2-ene, (Z)-hex-3-ene and (E)-3-methylpent-2-ene.

Kinetics Studies of Aqueous Phase Reactions of Cl Atoms and Cl2- Radicals with Organic Sulfur Compounds of Atmospheric Interest

A laser flash photolysis-long path UV-visible absorption technique has been employed to investigate the kinetics of aqueous phase reactions of chlorine atoms (Cl) and dichloride radicals (Cl2(-)) with four organic sulfur compounds of atmospheric interest, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO; CH3S(O)CH3), dimethyl sulfone (DMSO2; CH3(O)S(O)CH3), methanesulfinate (MSI; CH3S(O)O-), and methanesulfonate (MS; CH3(O)S(O)O-). Measured rate coefficients at T = 295 +/- 1 K (in units of M(-1) s(-1)) are as follows: Cl + DMSO, (6.3 +/- 0.6) x 10(9); Cl2(-) + DMSO, (1.6 +/- 0.8) x 10(7); Cl + DMSO2, (8.2 +/- 1.6) x 10(5); Cl2(-) + DMSO2, (8.2 +/- 5.5) x 10(3); Cl2(-) + MSI, (8.0 +/- 1.0) x 10(8); Cl + MS, (4.9 +/- 0.6) x 10(5); Cl2(-) + MS, (3.9 +/- 0.7) x 10(3). Reported uncertainties are estimates of accuracy at the 95% confidence level and the rate coefficients for MSI and MS reactions with Cl2(-) are corrected to the zero ionic strength limit. The absorption spectrum of the DMSO-Cl adduct is reported; peak absorbance is observed at 390 nm and the peak extinction coefficient is found to be 5760 M(-1) cm(-1) with a 2sigma uncertainty of +/-30%. Some implications of the new kinetics results for understanding the atmospheric sulfur cycle are discussed.

Low European methyl chloroform emissions inferred from long-term atmospheric measurements

Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3, 1,1,1,-trichloroethane) was used widely as a solvent before it was recognized to be an ozone-depleting substance and its phase-out was introduced under the Montreal Protocol. Subsequently, its atmospheric concentration has declined steadily and recent European methyl chloroform consumption and emissions were estimated to be less than 0.1 gigagrams per year. However, data from a short-term tropospheric measurement campaign (EXPORT) indicated that European methyl chloroform emissions could have been over 20 gigagrams in 2000 (ref. 6), almost doubling previously estimated global emissions. Such enhanced emissions would significantly affect results from the CH3CC13 method of deriving global abundances of hydroxyl radicals (OH) (refs 7-12)-the dominant reactive atmospheric chemical for removing trace gases related to air pollution, ozone depletion and the greenhouse effect. Here we use long-term, high-frequency data from Mace Head, Ireland and Jungfraujoch, Switzerland, to infer European methyl chloroform emissions. We find that European emission estimates declined from about 60 gigagrams per year in the mid-1990s to 0.3-1.4 and 1.9-3.4 gigagrams per year in 2000-03, based on Mace Head and Jungfraujoch data, respectively. Our European methyl chloroform emission estimates are therefore higher than calculated from consumption data, but are considerably lower than those derived from the EXPORT campaign in 2000 (ref. 6).

The oxidative capacity of the troposphere: Coupling of field measurements of OH and a global chemistry transport model

A combination of in situ, ground-based observations of marine boundary layer OH concentrations performed by laser-induced fluorescence at Mace Head, Ireland and Cape Grim, Tasmania, and a global chemistry-transport model (GEOS-CHEM) are used to obtain an estimate of the mean concentration of OH in the global troposphere. The model OH field is constrained to the geographically sparse, observed OH concentration averaged over the duration of the measurement campaigns to remove diurnal and synoptic variability. The mean northern and southern hemispheric OH concentrations obtained are 0.91 x 10(6) cm(-3) and 1.03 x 10(6) cm(-3) respectively, consistent with values determined from methyl chloroform observations. The observational OH dataset is heavily biased towards mid-latitude summer and autumn observations in the northern hemisphere, while the global oxidising capacity is dominated by the tropics which is observed extremely sparsely; the implications of these geographical distributions are discussed.

Gas-phase HO-initiated reactions of elemental mercury: kinetics, product studies, and atmospheric implications

Mercury is an environmentally volatile toxic fluid metal that is assumed to have a long atmospheric residence time and hence is subject to long-range transport. The speciation and chemical transformation of mercury in the atmosphere strongly influences its bioaccumulation potential in the human food chain as well as its global cycling. To investigate the oxidation of Hg0 by HO, the dominantdaytime atmospheric oxidant, we performed kinetic and product studies over the temperature range 283-353 K under near atmospheric pressure (100+/-0.13 kPa) in air and N2 diluents. Experiments were carried out by the relative rate method using five reference molecules and monitored by gas chromatography with mass spectroscopic detection (GC-MS). The HO were generated using UV photolysis of isopropyl nitrite at 300 < or = lambda < or = 400 nm in the presence of NO. The room-temperature rate constant was found to be (9.0+/-1.3) x 10(-14) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1). The temperature dependence of the reaction can be expressed as a simple Arrhenius expression (in unit of 10(-14) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1)) using ethane as the reference molecule: kHg + HO = 3.55 x 10(-14) exp((294+/-16)/T). The major reaction product, HgO, was identified in the gaseous form, as aerosols and as deposits on the container walls, using chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CI-MS), electron impact mass spectrometry (EI-MS), GC-MS, and cold vapor atomic fluorescence spectrometry (CVAFS). Experimental results reveal that ca. 6% of the reaction products were collected on a 0.2 microm filter as suspended aerosol, ca. 10% were in the gaseous form, and about 80% were deposited on the reaction vessel wall. The potential implications of our results in the understanding of tropospheric mercury transformation are herein discussed.

A high-resolution model for estimating the environmental fate of multi-species chemicals: application to malathion and pentachlorophenol

A high-resolution multi-species (HR-MS) model is presented that assesses the fate of up to four inter-converting chemical species. The current model has a more detailed environmental description than previous multi-species models in order to give a more accurate description of environmental fate. Improvements to the model environment include stratified air, soil and sediment compartments, the inclusion of a vegetation compartment, and the separation of the aerosol phase from the gas phase of the atmosphere. Such detailed environmental descriptions are particularly valuable when chemical heterogeneity is expected within environmental media as occurs with more reactive chemicals or local-scale simulations. The HR-MS model is illustratively applied to two situations for which a detailed environmental description is needed to describe the chemical fate accurately. The first example is the estimation of the atmospheric concentrations of malathion and its degradation product malaoxon following a local-scale application. The second example is a regional simulation of pentachlorophenol, which benefits from the more detailed treatment of ionizing chemical in the atmosphere. In both these cases, the HR-MS model is shown to be in good agreement with observed field data and provides a more accurate description of environmental fate than simpler multi-species models.

Atmospheric lifetime of fluorotelomer alcohols

Relative rate techniques were used to study the kinetics of the reactions of Cl atoms and OH radicals with a series of fluorotelomer alcohols, F(CF2CF2)nCH2CH2OH (n = 2, 3, 4), in 700 Torr of N2 or air, diluent at 296 +/- 2K. The length of the F(CF2CF2)n- group had no discernible impact on the reactivity of the molecule. For n = 2, 3, or 4, k(Cl + F(CF2CF2)nCH2CH2OH) = (1.61 +/- 0.49) x 10(-11) and k(OH + F(CF2CF2)nCH2CH2OH) = (1.07 +/- 0.22) x 10(-12) cm3 molecule(-1) s(-1). Consideration of the likely rates of other possible atmospheric loss mechanisms leads to the conclusion that the atmospheric lifetime of F(CF2CF2)nCH2CH2OH (n > or = 2) is determined by reaction with OH radicals and is approximately 20 d.

Continuing emissions of methyl chloroform from Europe

The consumption of methyl chloroform (1,1,1-trichloroethane), an industrial solvent, has been banned by the 1987 Montreal Protocol because of its ozone-depleting potential. During the 1990s, global emissions have decreased substantially and, since 1999, near-zero emissions have been estimated for Europe and the United States. Here we present measurements of methyl chloroform that are inconsistent with the assumption of small emissions. Using a tracer transport model, we estimate that European emissions were greater than 20 Gg in 2000. Although these emissions are not significant for stratospheric ozone depletion, they have important implications for estimates of global tropospheric hydroxyl radical (OH) concentrations, deduced from measurements of methyl chloroform. Ongoing emissions therefore cast doubt upon recent reports of a strong and unexpected negative trend in OH during the 1990s and a previously calculated higher OH abundance in the Southern Hemisphere compared to the Northern Hemisphere.

The annual course of TCA formation in the lower troposphere: a modeling study

We present a modeling study investigating the influence of climate conditions and solar radiation intensity on gas-phase trichloroacetic acid (TCA) formation. As part of the ECCA-project (Ecotoxicological Risk in the Caspian Catchment Area), this modeling study uses climate data specific for the two individual climate regimes, namely "Kalmykia" and "Kola Peninsula". A third regime has also been included in this study, namely "Central Europe", which serves as a reference to somehow more moderate climate conditions. The simulations have been performed with a box modeling package (SBOX, photoRACM), which uses Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism (RACM) as its chemistry scheme. For this model a mechanism supplement has been developed including the reaction pathways of methyl chloroform photooxidation. The investigations are completed by a detailed sensitivity study addressing the impact of temperature and relative humidity. Atmospheric OH and HO2 concentrations and the NOx/HO2 ratio were identified as the governing quantities controlling the TCA formation trough methyl chloroform oxidation in the gas phase. Model calculations show a TCA production rate ranging between almost zero and 6.5 x 10(3) molecules cm(-3) day(-1) depending on location and season. In the Kalmykia regime the model predicts mean TCA production rates of 1.3 x 10(-4) and 5.4 x 10(-5) microg m(-3) year(-1) for the urban and rural environment, respectively. From the comparison of model calculations with measured TCA burdens in the soil ranging between 130 g m(-3) and 1750 g m(-3) we conclude that TCA formation through methyl chloroform photooxidation in the gas-phase is probably not the principal atmospheric TCA source in this region.