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Kim SW, Han BC, So SH, Han CK, In G, Park CK, Hyun SH. Biodistribution and pharmacokinetic evaluation of Korean Red Ginseng components using radioisotopes in a rat model. J Ginseng Res 2023; 47:74-80. [PMID: 36644381 PMCID: PMC9834004 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2022.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Although many studies have evaluated the efficacy and pharmacokinetics of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) components (Rg1, Rb1, Rg3, Rd, etc.), few have examined the in vivo pharmacokinetics of the radiolabeled components. This study investigated the pharmacokinetics of ginsenosides and their metabolite compound K (CK), 20(s)-protopanaxadiol (PPD), and 20(s)-protopanaxatriol (PPT) using radioisotopes in rat oral administration. Methods Sprague-Dawley rats were dosed orally once with 10 mg/kg of the tritium(3H) radiolabeled samples, and then the blood was collected from the tail vein after 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24, 48, 96, and 168 h. Radioactivity in the organs, feces, urine, and carcass was determined using a liquid scintillation counter (LSC) and a bio-imaging analyzer system (BAS). Results and conclusion After oral administration, as the 3H-labeled ginsenosides were converted to metabolites, Cmax and half-life increased, and Tmax decreased. Interestingly, Rb1 and CK showed similar values, and after a single oral administration of components, the cumulative excretion ratio of urine and feces was 88.9%-92.4%. Although most KRG components were excreted within 96-168 h of administration, small amounts of components were detected in almost all tissues and mainly distributed to the liver except for the digestive tract when observed through autoradiography. This study demonstrated that KRG components were distributed to various organs in the rats. Further studies could be conducted to prove the bioavailability and transmission of KRG components to confirm the mechanism of KRG efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sun Hee Hyun
- Corresponding author. Laboratory of Efficacy Research, Korea Ginseng Corporation, 30 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34128, Republic of Korea.
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HSIAO CY, HSU YJ, TUNG YT, LEE MC, HUANG CC, HSIEH CC. Effects of Antrodia camphorata and Panax ginseng supplementation on anti-fatigue properties in mice. J Vet Med Sci 2018; 80:284-291. [PMID: 29276207 PMCID: PMC5836765 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.17-0572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Antrodia camphorata and Panax ginseng are well-known medicinal plants in Taiwan folk and traditional Chinese medicine, which have been reported for multifunctional bioactivities. However, there is limited evidence that a fixed combination formula of these two plant extracts is effective for the exercise improvement or anti-fatigue. We aimed to evaluate the potential beneficial effects of the mix formulation of these two herbal medicines (AG formulation) on fatigue and ergogenic functions following physiological challenge. Male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice from four groups (n=10 per group) were orally administered AG formulation for 4 weeks at 0.984, 2.952 and 5.904 g/kg/day, which were designated the Vehicle, AG-1X, AG-3X and AG-6X groups, respectively. The anti-fatigue activity and exercise performance were evaluated using exhaustive swimming time, forelimb grip strength, and levels of serum lactate, ammonia, glucose, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatine kinase (CK) after a swimming exercise. The exhaustive swimming time of the 1X, 3X or 6X AG group was significantly longer than that of the Vehicle group, and the forelimb grip strength of the 1X, 3X or 6X AG group was also significantly higher than that of the Vehicle group. AG supplementation also produced decreases in serum lactate, ammonia, BUN and CK activity after the swimming test, as well as increases in glucose. Therefore, the AG complex could be a potential formulation with an anti-fatigue pharmacological effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Yu HSIAO
- Department of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Chang Gung
University of Science and Technology, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
- Research Center for Food and Cosmetic Safety, and Research
Center for Chinese Herbal Medicine, College of Human Ecology, Chang Gung University of
Science and Technology, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
- Aesthetic Medical Center, Department of Dermatology, Chang
Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Ju HSU
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport
University, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tang TUNG
- Graduate Institute of Metabolism and Obesity Sciences,
Taipei Medical University, Taipei City 11031, Taiwan
| | - Mon-Chien LEE
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport
University, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Chang HUANG
- Graduate Institute of Sports Science, National Taiwan Sport
University, Taoyuan 33301, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Metabolism and Obesity Sciences,
Taipei Medical University, Taipei City 11031, Taiwan
| | - City C. HSIEH
- Department of Physical Education, National Tsing Hua
University, Hsinchu City 30014, Taiwan
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Saravana PS, Getachew AT, Ahmed R, Cho YJ, Lee YB, Chun BS. Optimization of phytochemicals production from the ginseng by-products using pressurized hot water: Experimental and dynamic modelling. Biochem Eng J 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Nabavi SF, Sureda A, Habtemariam S, Nabavi SM. Ginsenoside Rd and ischemic stroke; a short review of literatures. J Ginseng Res 2015; 39:299-303. [PMID: 26869821 PMCID: PMC4593783 DOI: 10.1016/j.jgr.2015.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Panax ginseng is a well-known economic medical plant that is widely used in Chinese traditional medicine. This species contains a unique class of natural products-ginsenosides. Recent clinical and experimental studies have presented numerous lines of evidence on the promising role of ginsenosides on different diseases including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and certain types of cancer. Nowadays, most of the attention has focused on ginsenoside Rd as a neuroprotective agent to attenuate ischemic stroke damages. Some of the evidence showed that ginsenoside Rd ameliorates ischemic stroke-induced damages through the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammation. Ginsenoside Rd can prolong neural cells' survival through the upregulation of the endogenous antioxidant system, phosphoinositide-3-kinase/AKT and extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 pathways, preservation of mitochondrial membrane potential, suppression of the nuclear factor-kappa B, transient receptor potential melastatin, acid sensing ion channels 1a, poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1, protein tyrosine kinase activation, as well as reduction of cytochrome c-releasing and apoptosis-inducing factor. In the current work, we review the available reports on the promising role of ginsenoside Rd on ischemic stroke. We also discuss its chemistry, source, and the molecular mechanism underlying this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Fazel Nabavi
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Antoni Sureda
- Research Group on Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress, University of Balearic Islands, and CIBERobn (Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition), Palma de Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - Solomon Habtemariam
- Pharmacognosy Research Laboratories, Medway School of Science, University of Greenwich, Chatham-Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK
| | - Seyed Mohammad Nabavi
- Applied Biotechnology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Xu Y, Zhang P, Wang C, Shan Y, Wang D, Qian F, Sun M, Zhu C. Effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on tyrosine hydroxylase and related mechanisms in the forced swimming-induced fatigue rats. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2013; 150:138-147. [PMID: 23994341 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2013.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ginsenoside Rg3 has shown multiple pharmacological activities and been considered as one of the most promising approaches for fatigue treatment. However, little is known about the cellular and molecular mechanisms of Rg3 on anti-fatigue and the effect of Rg3 on dopaminergic system has not been reported yet. The major aim of this study is to investigate the effect of Rg3 on TH expression and the related biochemical parameters, such as PKAα, ERK1/2, Akt and α-synuclein in brain of fatigue rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS Weight-loaded forced swimming was performed to establish an animal model of fatigue. Rg3 (10mg/kg, 50mg/kg and 100mg/kg) was intragastrically administrated before swimming. The effect of Rg3 on the expression and phosphorylation of TH and TH-related proteins in fatigue rats or in SH-SY5Y cells was assessed with western blotting. HPLC was used to examine the level of DA and DOPAC in the fatigue rats tissues. RESULTS TH and phosphorylated TH were decreased in different brain regions of which ventral midbrain were less affected in weight-loaded forced swimming rats. Pretreatment with Rg3 significantly suppressed fatigue-induced decrease expression of TH and TH phosphorylation. Also treatment with Rg3 reversed the decrease expression of PKAα as well as the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and Akt which were induced by weight-loaded forced swimming. Moreover, weight-loaded swimming could induce the increase expression of α-synuclein in hippocampus and midbrain, while suppressed α-synuclein expression in striatum and prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, Rg3 could induce the increase of TH expression and phosphorylation which was accompanied with elevated expression and phosphorylation of related kinase proteins in vitro, while the inhibitors of kinase proteins could suppress these effects of Rg3. In addition, HPLC results showed that Rg3 could reverse the weight-loaded swimming-induced increase of DOPAC/DA ratio. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that fatigue can induce the decrease of DA which might partially result from the change of TH expression and phosphorylation, and Rg3 can reverse these fatigue-induced changes. The underling mechanisms may include the activity changes of PKAα, ERK1/2, Akt and α-synuclein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxia Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, 138 Yixueyuan Road, Shanghai 200032, PR China; Institutes of Brain Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, 138 Yixueyuan Road, Shanghai 200032, PR China.
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MacCrehan WA, White CM. Simplified ultrasonically- and microwave-assisted solvent extractions for the determination of ginsenosides in powdered Panax ginseng rhizomes using liquid chromatography with UV absorbance or electrospray mass spectrometric detection. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:4511-22. [PMID: 23564283 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6871-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Revised: 02/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/22/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
New approaches for the recovery of ginsenosides are presented that greatly simplify the liquid chromatographic (LC) determination of the total content of eight ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg1 and Rg2) in powdered Panax ginseng rhizomes. The extraction protocols not only recover the neutral ginsenosides, but also simultaneously incorporate base-catalyzed hydrolysis of the malonyl-ginsenosides using dilute potassium hydroxide added to the methanol-water extractant. This eliminates the need for an independent extraction step followed by acid- or base-catalyzed hydrolysis. Both ultrasonically-assisted and microwave-assisted extraction methods are developed. The optimization of these simplified methods to remove pendant malonate esters, while retaining the glycosidic linkages, was determined by LC through variation of the extraction/hydrolysis time, order of hydrolysis reagent addition, and evaluation of multiple extractions. A comparison of the ginsenoside profiles obtained with and without addition of base to the extractant solution was made using LCMS with positive-mode electrospray ionization (ESI(+)) detection. A number of malonyl-ginsenosides were tentatively identified by their mass spectral fragmentation spectra and indicating that they were converted to the free ginsenosides by the new extraction/hydrolysis procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A MacCrehan
- Chemical Sciences Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8392, USA.
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Gao FF, Zhang WY, Liu LM, Chang C, Han LK, Wei CY, Li W, Song ZF, Zheng YN. Detection and distribution of arginine derivatives in Panax quinquefolius L. and investigations of their antioxidant properties. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2012.04.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Qian T, Cai Z. Biotransformation of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg3 and Rh2 in rat gastrointestinal tracts. Chin Med 2010; 5:19. [PMID: 20504301 PMCID: PMC2887866 DOI: 10.1186/1749-8546-5-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ginsenosides such as Rb1, Rg3 and Rh2 are major bioactive components of Panax ginseng. This in vivo study investigates the metabolic pathways of ginsenosides Rb1, Rg3 and Rh2 orally administered to rats. METHODS High performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS-MS) techniques, particularly liquid chromatography electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS), were used to identify the metabolites. RESULTS Six metabolites of Rb1, six metabolites of Rg3 and three metabolites of Rh2 were detected in the feces samples of the rats. Rh2 was a metabolite of Rb1 and Rg3, whereas Rg3 was a metabolite of Rb1. Some metabolites such as protopanaxadiol and monooxygenated protopanaxadiol are metabolites of all three ginsenosides. CONCLUSION Oxygenation and deglycosylation are two major metabolic pathways of the ginsenosides in rat gastrointestinal tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianxiu Qian
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Scholey A, Ossoukhova A, Owen L, Ibarra A, Pipingas A, He K, Roller M, Stough C. Effects of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) on neurocognitive function: an acute, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2010; 212:345-56. [PMID: 20676609 PMCID: PMC2952762 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-010-1964-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 07/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Over the last decade, Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng) has been shown to improve aspects of human cognitive function. American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) has a distinct ginsenoside profile from P. ginseng, promising cognitive enhancing properties in preclinical studies and benefits processes linked to human cognition. OBJECTIVES The availability of a highly standardised extract of P. quinquefolius (Cereboost™) led us to evaluate its neurocognitive properties in humans for the first time. METHODS This randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover trial (N = 32, healthy young adults) assessed the acute mood, neurocognitive and glycaemic effects of three doses (100, 200 400 mg) of Cereboost™ (P. quinquefolius standardised to 10.65% ginsenosides). Participants' mood, cognitive function and blood glucose were measured 1, 3 and 6 h following administration. RESULTS There was a significant improvement of working memory (WM) performance associated with P. quinquefolius. Corsi block performance was improved by all doses at all testing times. There were differential effects of all doses on other WM tasks which were maintained across the testing day. Choice reaction time accuracy and 'calmness' were significantly improved by 100 mg. There were no changes in blood glucose levels. CONCLUSIONS This preliminary study has identified robust working memory enhancement following administration of American ginseng. These effects are distinct from those of Asian ginseng and suggest that psychopharmacological properties depend critically on ginsenoside profiles. These results have ramifications for the psychopharmacology of herbal extracts and merit further study using different dosing regimens and in populations where cognition is fragile.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Scholey
- NICM Centre for the Study of Natural Medicines and Neurocognition, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Vic 3122, Australia.
| | - Anastasia Ossoukhova
- NICM Centre for the Study of Natural Medicines and Neurocognition, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Vic 3122 Australia
| | - Lauren Owen
- NICM Centre for the Study of Natural Medicines and Neurocognition, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Vic 3122 Australia
| | - Alvin Ibarra
- Naturex Inc., 375 Huyler St., South Hackensack, NJ 07606 USA
| | - Andrew Pipingas
- NICM Centre for the Study of Natural Medicines and Neurocognition, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Vic 3122 Australia
| | - Kan He
- Naturex Inc., 375 Huyler St., South Hackensack, NJ 07606 USA
| | - Marc Roller
- Naturex Inc., 375 Huyler St., South Hackensack, NJ 07606 USA
| | - Con Stough
- NICM Centre for the Study of Natural Medicines and Neurocognition, Brain Sciences Institute, Swinburne University, Melbourne, Vic 3122 Australia
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Effects of ultrahigh pressure extraction conditions on yields and antioxidant activity of ginsenoside from ginseng. Sep Purif Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2008.12.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
Recent experimental evidences suggest protective and trophic effects of ginseng in the memory function of Alzheimer disease (AD). Thus, we investigated the clinical efficacy of Panax ginseng in the cognitive performance of AD patients in an open-label study. Consecutive AD patients were randomly assigned to the ginseng (n=58) or the control group (n=39), and the ginseng group was treated with Panax ginseng powder (4.5 g/d) for 12 weeks. Cognitive performances were monitored using the mini-mental state examination (MMSE) and Alzheimer disease assessment scale (ADAS) during 12 weeks of the ginseng treatment and at 12 weeks after the ginseng discontinuation. MMSE and ADAS scales showed no baseline difference between the groups. After ginseng treatment, the cognitive subscale of ADAS and the MMSE score began to show improvements and continued up to 12 weeks (P=0.029 and P=0.009 vs. baseline, respectively). After discontinuing ginseng, the improved ADAS and MMSE scores declined to the levels of the control group. These results suggest that Panax ginseng is clinically effective in the cognitive performance of AD patients.
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Tang W, Zhang Y, Gao J, Ding X, Gao S. The Anti-fatigue Effect of 20(R)-Ginsenoside Rg3 in Mice by Intranasally Administration. Biol Pharm Bull 2008; 31:2024-7. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.31.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Tang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University
| | - Yi Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University
| | - Jing Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University
| | - Xueying Ding
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University
| | - Shen Gao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University
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Yang L, Deng Y, Xu S, Zeng X. In vivo pharmacokinetic and metabolism studies of ginsenoside Rd. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 854:77-84. [PMID: 17526438 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2007] [Accepted: 04/01/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
A high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionisation-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS(n)) method has been developed to determine ginsenoside Rd in human plasma and to identify its metabolites in rat urine. The plasma and urine samples were pretreated by solid phase extraction (SPE) prior to analyses. In this work, gentiopicroside was used as the internal standard. The lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) for Rd in human plasma was 3 ng/ml. The average half-life time in plasma was detected as 19.29 h, when 10 mg of ginsenoside Rd was administrated intravenously to the volunteers. Seven metabolites including three oxygenated, two combined and two hydrolyzed components were identified in rat urine samples by using LC-MS and MS-MS, when ginsenoside Rd administered either orally or intravenously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liu Yang
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou University of TCM, Guangzhou 510120, PR China.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of complementary medicines in those with mental health problems is well documented. However, their effectiveness is often not established and they may be less harmless than commonly assumed. AIMS To review the complementary medicines routinely encountered in psychiatric practice, their effectiveness, potential adverse effects and interactions. METHOD Electronic and manual literature search on the effectiveness and safety of psychotropic complementary medicines. RESULTS Potentially useful substances include ginkgo and hydergine as cognitive enhancers, passion flower and valerian as sedatives, St John's wort and s-adenosylmethionine as antidepressants, and selenium and folate to complement antidepressants. The evidence is less conclusive for the use of omega-3 fatty acids as augmentation treatment in schizophrenia, melatonin for tardive dyskinesia and 18-methoxycoronaridine, an ibogaine derivative, for the treatment of cocaine and heroin addiction. CONCLUSIONS Systematic clinical trials are needed to test promising substances. Meanwhile, those wishing to take psychotropic complementary medicines require appropriate advice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ursula Werneke
- Division of Psychiatry, Homerton University Hospital, East Wing, Homerton Row, London E9 6SR, UK.
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Qian T, Cai Z, Wong RNS, Mak NK, Jiang ZH. In vivo rat metabolism and pharmacokinetic studies of ginsenoside Rg3. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2005; 816:223-32. [PMID: 15664354 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2004.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2004] [Accepted: 11/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Metabolism of an anti-tumor active component of Panax ginseng, ginsenoside (20R)-Rg(3), was studied for better understanding its pharmacokinetics in rat. LC-MS was used to determine Rg(3) and its metabolites in rat plasma, urine and feces samples. An average half-life of 18.5 min was obtained after the ginsenoside was intravenously dosed at 5 mg/kg. However, Rg(3) was not detected in rat plasma collected after oral administration at 100 mg/kg. Only 0.97-1.15% Rg(3) of the dosed amount was determined in feces. Hydrolysis and oxygenated metabolites were detected and identified in feces collected after oral administration by using LC-MS and MS-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianxiu Qian
- Department of Chemistry, Hong Kong Baptist University, 224 Waterloo Road, Kowloon, Hong Kong, SAR, China
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Cai Z, Qian T, Wong RN, Jiang ZH. Liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization mass spectrometry for metabolism and pharmacokinetic studies of ginsenoside Rg3. Anal Chim Acta 2003. [DOI: 10.1016/s0003-2670(03)00719-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Abstract
Ginseng has been used medicinally in the Far East for several millennia and is currently one of the most widely taken herbal products throughout the world. It has been attributed with a plethora of physiological effects that could potentially benefit cognitive performance or mood. Studies involving animals show that ginseng and its constituent ginsenosides can modulate indices of stress, fatigue, and learning. However, there is a lack of adequately controlled research showing behavioural effects following chronic administration to humans. Recent research has demonstrated that single doses of ginseng most notably engender cognitive benefits in terms of improved memory, but can also be associated with 'costs' in terms of attention task deficits following less mnemonically beneficial doses. A single dose of ginseng has also been shown to modulate cerebroelectrical (EEG) activity. It is suggested that ginseng would benefit from rigorous research further delineating its acute effects and exploring the relationship between acute effects and those seen during and following chronic administration regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- David O Kennedy
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Division of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, RG30 1EA, UK.
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Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Drewery L, Marsh VR, Moore B, Ashton H. Electroencephalograph effects of single doses of Ginkgo biloba and Panax ginseng in healthy young volunteers. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003; 75:701-9. [PMID: 12895688 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(03)00120-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Both Ginkgo biloba and Panax ginseng exert a number of physiological effects and have been shown to modulate aspects of cognitive performance. Whilst a number of studies have examined ginkgo's effects on electroencephalograph (EEG) recordings, to date, none have investigated the EEG effects of ginseng. In this double-blind, placebo-controlled, balanced crossover experiment, the effects of single doses of G. biloba (360 mg GK501), P. ginseng (200 mg G115), and an identical placebo, on auditory-evoked potentials, contingent negative variation (CNV), and resting power within the delta, theta, alpha, and beta wavebands, were assessed in 15 healthy volunteers. Each participant was assessed on three separate occasions 4 h after consuming that day's treatment. The order of presentation of the treatments was dictated by a Latin square with 7 days between testing sessions. The results showed that ginseng led to a significant shortening of the latency of the P300 component of the evoked potential. Both ginseng and ginkgo also led to significant reductions in frontal 'eyes closed' theta and beta activity, with additional reduction for ginseng in the alpha waveband. These findings demonstrate for the first time that P. ginseng can directly modulate cerebroelectrical activity, and that these effects are more pronounced than those following G. biloba.
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Affiliation(s)
- D O Kennedy
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Division of Psychology, University of Northumbria, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK.
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Fillit HM, Butler RN, O'Connell AW, Albert MS, Birren JE, Cotman CW, Greenough WT, Gold PE, Kramer AF, Kuller LH, Perls TT, Sahagan BG, Tully T. Achieving and maintaining cognitive vitality with aging. Mayo Clin Proc 2002; 77:681-96. [PMID: 12108606 DOI: 10.4065/77.7.681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cognitive vitality is essential to quality of life and survival in old age. With normal aging, cognitive changes such as slowed speed of processing are common, but there is substantial interindividual variability, and cognitive decline is clearly not inevitable. In this review, we focus on recent research investigating the association of various lifestyle factors and medical comorbidities with cognitive aging. Most of these factors are potentially modifiable or manageable, and some are protective. For example, animal and human studies suggest that lifelong learning, mental and physical exercise, continuing social engagement, stress reduction, and proper nutrition may be important factors in promoting cognitive vitality in aging. Manageable medical comorbidities, such as diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia, also contribute to cognitive decline in older persons. Other comorbidities such as smoking and excess alcohol intake may contribute to cognitive decline, and avoiding these activities may promote cognitive vitality in aging. Various therapeutics, including cognitive enhancers and protective agents such as antioxidants and anti-inflammatories, may eventually prove useful as adjuncts for the prevention and treatment of cognitive decline with aging. The data presented in this review should interest physicians who provide preventive care management to middle-aged and older individuals who seek to maintain cognitive vitality with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard M Fillit
- Institute for the Study of Aging, Inc., New York, NY 10153, USA.
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Kennedy DO, Scholey AB, Wesnes KA. Dose dependent changes in cognitive performance and mood following acute administration of Ginseng to healthy young volunteers. Nutr Neurosci 2002; 4:295-310. [PMID: 11842896 DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.2001.11747370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence suggests that chronic administration of Ginseng can improve cognitive performance in animals and in humans. No previous study has examined the possibility of cognitive effects following single doses of Ginseng in healthy adults. The present study investigated whether acute administration of Ginseng (G115, Pharmaton SA) had any consistent effect on mood and four aspects of cognitive performance ("Quality of Memory", "Speed of Memory", "Quality of Attention" and "Speed of Attention") that can be derived by factor analysis of the Cognitive Drug Research computerised assessment battery. The study followed a placebo-controlled, double-blind, balanced, crossover design. Twenty healthy young adult volunteers received 200, 400, and 600 mg of G115, and a matching placebo, in counterbalanced order, with a 7 day wash-out period between treatments. Following a baseline cognitive assessment, further test sessions took place 1, 2.5, 4 and 6 h after the day's treatment. The most striking result was a significant improvement in "Quality of Memory" and the associated "Secondary Memory" factor at all time points following 400 mg of Ginseng. Both the 200 and 600 mg doses were associated with a significant decrement of the "Speed of Attention" factor at later testing times only. Subjective ratings of alertness were also reduced 6 h following the two lowest doses. To the best of our knowledge this represents the first demonstration of a modulation of mood and cognitive performance by acute administration of Ginseng.
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Affiliation(s)
- D O Kennedy
- Division of Psychology, University of Northumbria, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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