Operation of a Universal Test Unit for Planted Soil Filters – Planted Fixed Bed Reactor

Benzylsuccinate Synthase is Post-Transcriptionally Regulated in the Toluene-Degrading Denitrifier Magnetospirillum sp. Strain 15-1

The facultative denitrifying alphaproteobacterium Magnetospirillum sp. strain 15-1 had been isolated from the hypoxic rhizosphere of a constructed wetland model fed with toluene. This bacterium can catabolize toluene anaerobically but not aerobically. Here, we used strain 15-1 to investigate regulation of expression of the highly oxygen-sensitive glycyl radical enzyme benzylsuccinate synthase, which catalyzes the first step in anaerobic toluene degradation. In cells growing aerobically with benzoate, the addition of toluene resulted in a ~20-fold increased transcription of bssA, encoding for the catalytically active subunit of the enzyme. Under anoxic conditions, bssA mRNA copy numbers were up to 129-fold higher in cells growing with toluene as compared to cells growing with benzoate. Proteomics showed that abundance of benzylsuccinate synthase increased in cells growing anaerobically with toluene. In contrast, peptides of this enzyme were never detected in oxic conditions. These findings show that synthesis of benzylsuccinate synthase was under stringent post-transcriptional control in the presence of oxygen, which is a novel level of regulation for glycyl radical enzymes.

Hydraulic study of a non-steady horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetland during start-up

This paper describes the hydraulic performance of a start-up, pilot-scale, horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetland (CW), located outdoors at the Helmholtz UFZ, Leipzig. This paper aims to investigate the impact of the method of hydraulic calculation in a pilot-scale system. Impulse-response tracer tests were conducted at multiple depths and locations throughout the system and the uranine concentration was measured using a fluorometer. In addition, the volumetric flow rate was closely monitored and climatic data was gathered to support the hydraulic results. Werner and Kadlec's modified residence time distribution (RTD) theory (originally developed for systems with large flow rate and volume fluctuations) was applied and the results compared to those obtained using classic RTD theory. Progressive uranine dispersion, broadening of the RTD base, a change in peak shape and extended tailing were observed with increasing distance. All of these factors indicated deviation from plug flow and mixing effects with low-to-moderate dead volume. As this was a non-steady flow system, application of modified RTD theory ensured that the first moments of the normalized breakthrough curves and RTD functions were always unity. The Student's t-test (95% confidence) showed that the outlet RTDs calculated assuming steady-flow were significantly different, but those determined using the modified theory were closely comparable. In general, a decrease in flow rate from inlet to outlet was observed and fluctuations in the outflow were linked to climatic conditions. August was characterized by the highest temperatures, high global radiation and high rates of evapotranspiration. Low or no outflow was recorded in conjunction with high evapotranspiration. The lowest temperatures, low global radiation, low evapotranspiration and high humidity were recorded in October, as well as the second highest rainfall (82 mm) after June (115 mm). Surges in outflow were observed with rain events.

The sulfur depot in the rhizosphere of a common wetland plant, Juncus effusus, can support long-term dynamics of inorganic sulfur transformations

The sulfur cycle in the rhizosphere of constructed wetlands is frequently interlaced with transformations of carbon and nitrogen. Knowledge about the manifold sulfur transformations may thus aid in improving treatment performance of constructed wetlands. In this study, two laboratory-scale constructed wetland models (planted fixed bed reactors; PFR1 and PFR2) were used to investigate inorganic sulfur transformations at various total loads of sulfate and organic carbon. Sulfate, sulfide and elemental sulfur were the most abundant sulfur compounds detected, thus providing evidence for the simultaneous occurrence of dissimilatory sulfate reduction and sulfide oxidation. This co-occurrence was likely enabled by oxygen micro-gradients in the root-near environment, i.e. aerobic sulfide and elemental sulfur oxidation took place mostly at the roots while sulfate and elemental sulfur reduction occurred in the pore water under reduced redox conditions. The rhizosphere was found to be first sink, then source for sulfur during the course of the experiment. Immobilization of reduced sulfur was triggered by catabolism of organic matter coupled to dissimilatory sulfate reduction and the subsequent partial oxidation of generated sulfide. Good plant status was critical for sulfur deposition in the systems. Without externally provided sulfate the sulfur depot of the rhizosphere was a prolonged source for sulfur, which was remobilized into the pore water. Oscillations between sulfide and sulfur (PFR1) or sulfide and sulfate (PFR2) suggested a dynamic interplay between plants and various microbial guilds, i.e. dissimilatory sulfate and sulfur reducers on one side and sulfide and sulfur oxidizers on the other.

Aerobic Toluene Degraders in the Rhizosphere of a Constructed Wetland Model Show Diurnal Polyhydroxyalkanoate Metabolism

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are successfully applied for the treatment of waters contaminated with aromatic compounds. In these systems, plants provide oxygen and root exudates to the rhizosphere and thereby stimulate microbial degradation processes. Root exudation of oxygen and organic compounds depends on photosynthetic activity and thus may show day-night fluctuations. While diurnal changes in CW effluent composition have been observed, information on respective fluctuations of bacterial activity are scarce. We investigated microbial processes in a CW model system treating toluene-contaminated water which showed diurnal oscillations of oxygen concentrations using metaproteomics. Quantitative real-time PCR was applied to assess diurnal expression patterns of genes involved in aerobic and anaerobic toluene degradation. We observed stable aerobic toluene turnover by Burkholderiales during the day and night. Polyhydroxyalkanoate synthesis was upregulated in these bacteria during the day, suggesting that they additionally feed on organic root exudates while reutilizing the stored carbon compounds during the night via the glyoxylate cycle. Although mRNA copies encoding the anaerobic enzyme benzylsuccinate synthase (bssA) were relatively abundant and increased slightly at night, the corresponding protein could not be detected in the CW model system. Our study provides insights into diurnal patterns of microbial processes occurring in the rhizosphere of an aquatic ecosystem.

IMPORTANCE

Constructed wetlands are a well-established and cost-efficient option for the bioremediation of contaminated waters. While it is commonly accepted knowledge that the function of CWs is determined by the interplay of plants and microorganisms, the detailed molecular processes are considered a black box. Here, we used a well-characterized CW model system treating toluene-contaminated water to investigate the microbial processes influenced by diurnal plant root exudation. Our results indicated stable aerobic toluene degradation by members of the Burkholderiales during the day and night. Polyhydroxyalkanoate synthesis in these bacteria was higher during the day, suggesting that they additionally fed on organic root exudates and reutilized the stored carbon compounds during the night. Our study illuminates microbial processes occurring in the rhizosphere of an aquatic ecosystem.

Protein-SIP in environmental studies

Metaproteomics coupled to stable isotope probing (SIP) was established to detect metabolically active key players in microbial communities. Here, we discuss the current state of protein-based stable isotope probing (protein-SIP) and the perspectives of using different stable isotope atoms (i.e. ¹³C, ¹⁵N, ¹⁸O, ^34/36S), multiple isotope labelling, the utilisation of substrates of major abundance and micro-pollutants [pesticides, herbicides and pharmaceuticals present in the environment at very low concentrations (ngμg/L)], and applications in complex model systems and in situ studies in the environment.

Enhancing metaproteomics--The value of models and defined environmental microbial systems

Metaproteomics--the large-scale characterization of the entire protein complement of environmental microbiota at a given point in time--has provided new features to study complex microbial communities in order to unravel these "black boxes." New technical challenges arose that were not an issue for classical proteome analytics before that could be tackled by the application of different model systems. Here, we review different current and future model systems for metaproteome analysis. Following a short introduction to microbial communities and metaproteomics, we introduce model systems for clinical and biotechnological research questions including acid mine drainage, anaerobic digesters, and activated sludge. Model systems are useful to evaluate the challenges encountered within (but not limited to) metaproteomics, including species complexity and coverage, biomass availability, or reliable protein extraction. The implementation of model systems can be considered as a step forward to better understand microbial community responses and ecological functions of single member organisms. In the future, improvements are necessary to fully explore complex environmental systems by metaproteomics.

In situ protein-SIP highlights Burkholderiaceae as key players degrading toluene by para ring hydroxylation in a constructed wetland model

In constructed wetlands, organic pollutants are mainly degraded via microbial processes. Helophytes, plants that are commonly used in these systems, provide oxygen and root exudates to the rhizosphere, stimulating microbial degradation. While the treatment performance of constructed wetlands can be remarkable, a mechanistic understanding of microbial degradation processes in the rhizosphere is still limited. We investigated microbial toluene removal in a constructed wetland model system combining 16S rRNA gene sequencing, metaproteomics and (13) C-toluene in situ protein-based stable isotope probing (protein-SIP). The rhizospheric bacterial community was dominated by Burkholderiales and Rhizobiales, each contributing about 20% to total taxon abundance. Protein-SIP data revealed that the members of Burkholderiaceae, the proteins of which showed about 73% of (13) C-incorporation, were the main degraders of toluene in the planted system, while the members of Comamonadaceae were involved to a lesser extent in degradation (about 64% (13) C-incorporation). Among the Burkholderiaceae, one of the key players of toluene degradation could be assigned to Ralstonia pickettii. We observed that the main pathway of toluene degradation occurred via two subsequent monooxygenations of the aromatic ring. Our study provides a suitable approach to assess the key processes and microbes that are involved in the degradation of organic pollutants in complex rhizospheric ecosystems.

Microbial Toluene Removal in Hypoxic Model Constructed Wetlands Occurs Predominantly via the Ring Monooxygenation Pathway

In the present study, microbial toluene degradation in controlled constructed wetland model systems, planted fixed-bed reactors (PFRs), was queried with DNA-based methods in combination with stable isotope fractionation analysis and characterization of toluene-degrading microbial isolates. Two PFR replicates were operated with toluene as the sole external carbon and electron source for 2 years. The bulk redox conditions in these systems were hypoxic to anoxic. The autochthonous bacterial communities, as analyzed by Illumina sequencing of 16S rRNA gene amplicons, were mainly comprised of the families Xanthomonadaceae, Comamonadaceae, and Burkholderiaceae, plus Rhodospirillaceae in one of the PFR replicates. DNA microarray analyses of the catabolic potentials for aromatic compound degradation suggested the presence of the ring monooxygenation pathway in both systems, as well as the anaerobic toluene pathway in the PFR replicate with a high abundance of Rhodospirillaceae. The presence of catabolic genes encoding the ring monooxygenation pathway was verified by quantitative PCR analysis, utilizing the obtained toluene-degrading isolates as references. Stable isotope fractionation analysis showed low-level of carbon fractionation and only minimal hydrogen fractionation in both PFRs, which matches the fractionation signatures of monooxygenation and dioxygenation. In combination with the results of the DNA-based analyses, this suggests that toluene degradation occurs predominantly via ring monooxygenation in the PFRs.

Field application of a planted fixed bed reactor (PFR) for support media and rhizosphere investigation using undisturbed samples from full-scale constructed wetlands

This study presents a novel method for investigations on undisturbed samples from full-scale horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetlands (HSSFCW). The planted fixed bed reactor (PFR), developed at the Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research (UFZ), is a universal test unit for planted soil filters that reproduces the operational conditions of a constructed wetland (CW) system in laboratory scale. The present research proposes modifications on the PFR original configuration in order to allow its operation in field conditions. A mobile device to obtain undisturbed samples from real-scale HSSFCW was also developed. The experimental setting is presented with two possible operational configurations. The first allows the removal and replacement of undisturbed samples in the CW bed for laboratory investigations, guaranteeing sample integrity with a mobile device. The second allows the continuous operation of the PFR and undisturbed samples as a fraction of the support media, reproducing the same environmental conditions outside the real-scale system. Investigations on the hydrodynamics of the adapted PFR were carried out with saline tracer tests, validating the proposed adaptation. Six adapted PFR units were installed next to full-scale HSSFCW beds and fed with interstitial liquid pumped from two regions of planted and unplanted support media. Fourteen points were monitored along the system, covering carbon fractions, nitrogen and sulfate. The results indicate the method as a promising tool for investigations on CW support media, rhizosphere and open space for studies on CW modeling, respirometry, kinetic parameters, microbial communities, redox potential and plant influence on HSSFCW.

Benzene Removal in Laboratory Scale Model Wetland under Different Electron Acceptor Conditions Treating Sulfate-Rich Wastewater

Constructed wetlands (CWs) are shown to be suitable for the treatment of water contaminated with benzene. However, due to the high sulfate concentration (around 850 mg/L) in influent, sulfate reduction will be stimulated in CWs. Subsequently, the toxicity of sulfide will be a catastrophe to the plants, and the treatment performance of CWs will be impaired. In this study, nitrite and nitrate were used as competitor with sulfate for electron acceptor to prevent the sulfate reduction. With the inflow benzene concentration ranged from 21.6-103 μg, and the accumulation of sulfide reached up to 39%, the removal efficiency of benzene decreased from 86% to 27%. However, with the addition of nitrite and nitrate, the sulfide accumulation was inhibited successfully, and the benzene removal efficiency recovered to 85%. In conclusion, both nitrite and nitrate can be an option for preventing sulfate reduction and sulfide toxicity in CWs treating sulfate-rich wastewater.

Response of ammonium removal to growth and transpiration of Juncus effusus during the treatment of artificial sewage in laboratory-scale wetlands

The correlation between nitrogen removal and the role of the plants in the rhizosphere of constructed wetlands are the subject of continuous discussion, but knowledge is still insufficient. Since the influence of plant growth and physiological activity on ammonium removal has not been well characterized in constructed wetlands so far, this aspect is investigated in more detail in model wetlands under defined laboratory conditions using Juncus effusus for treating an artificial sewage. Growth and physiological activity, such as plant transpiration, have been found to correlate with both the efficiency of ammonium removal within the rhizosphere of J. effusus and the methane formation. The uptake of ammonium by growing plant stocks is within in a range of 45.5%, but under conditions of plant growth stagnation, a further nearly complete removal of the ammonium load points to the likely existence of additional nitrogen removal processes. In this way, a linear correlation between the ammonium concentration inside the rhizosphere and the transpiration of the plant stocks implies that an influence of plant physiological activity on the efficiency of N-removal exists. Furthermore, a linear correlation between methane concentration and plant transpiration has been estimated. The findings indicate a fast response of redox processes to plant activities. Accordingly, not only the influence of plant transpiration activity on the plant-internal convective gas transport, the radial oxygen loss by the plant roots and the efficiency of nitrification within the rhizosphere, but also the nitrogen gas released by phytovolatilization are discussed. The results achieved by using an unplanted control system are different in principle and characterized by a low efficiency of ammonium removal and a high methane enrichment of up to a maximum of 72.7% saturation.

Effect of Nitrate on Sulphur Transformations Depending on Carbon Load in Laboratory-Scale Wetlands Treating Artificial Sewage

Two laboratory-scale constructed wetlands planted with Juncus effusus were used to investigate the dynamics of sulphur transformations under varying nitrate and organic carbon loads as well as its interactions with microbial carbon and nitrogen transformations. The removal of dissolved organic carbon was obtained to be around 65-87% with specific removal load of 1.40-2.63 g/m2 d. 94% of nitrate removal (under inflow concentration of 15 mg/L) irrespective of organic carbon loads indicated a highly active denitrification process in wetlands. Sulphate reduction was performed at a high level of 83% in a low redox potential (about -300 mV) under condition of inflow organic carbon concentration of 50 mg/L. The dosage of nitrate in the inflow can strongly hinder the process ofdissimilatory microbial sulphate. The coexist of sulphide with concentration of 1.65-2.65 mg/L and elemental sulphur of 0.17-2.18 mg/L in the pore water of wetlands demonstrated a simultaneous occurrence of microbial sulphate reduction and sulphide oxidation. A lower ammonium oxidation removal was initiated, which was probably caused by the toxic effect of sulphide with concentration of about 3 mg/L in the pore water. The sulphide concentration in the pore water was highly exponentially correlated with the redox potential, indicating the control of sulphide in wetlands could be performed by the adjustment of redox potential via aeration and/or nitrate dosage.

Sulphur transformation and deposition in the rhizosphere of Juncus effusus in a laboratory-scale constructed wetland

Sulphur cycling and its correlation to removal processes under dynamic redox conditions in the rhizosphere of helophytes in treatment wetlands are poorly understood. Therefore, long-term experiments were performed in laboratory-scale constructed wetlands treating artificial domestic wastewater in order to investigate the dynamics of sulphur compounds, the responses of plants and nitrifying microorganisms under carbon surplus conditions, and the generation of methane. For carbon surplus conditions (carbon:sulphate of 2.8:1) sulphate reduction happened but was repressed, in contrast to unplanted filters mentioned in literature. Doubling the carbon load caused stable and efficient sulphate reduction, rising of pH, increasing enrichment of S(2-) and S(0) in pore water, and finally plant death and inhibition of nitrification by sulphide toxicity. The data show a clear correlation of the occurrence of reduced S-species with decreasing C and N removal performance and plant viability in the experimental constructed wetlands.

Tracers for investigating pathogen fate and removal mechanisms in mesocosms

The purpose of the present investigation has been to develop a tracer suite that has application in in-situ assessment and optimization of physical and biological removal and elimination mechanisms of pathogens within laboratory scale biological treatment systems. The tracer suite includes three pathogen indicators, namely, a conserved non-viable particle (fluorescently labelled microspheres, FLM), a non-conserved non-viable particle (fluorescently labelled bioparticles, FLB), and a non-conserved viable particle (Nalidixic acid resistant E. coli, NAREC). The tracer triplet principles were developed with practical experiments on planted, and unplanted subsurface flow wetland mesocosms treating a synthetic domestic wastewater. The tracers monitor for physical removal mechanisms (FLM), elimination activity (FLB), and removal thresholds (NAREC). FLM enumeration was simplified by calibration of particle concentration with respect to acetone-extractable fluorescence. Similarly, FLB elimination was assessed by bulk fluorescence using two characteristic excitation-emission wavelength pairs: 494/519 and 220/319 nm. NAREC results indicated that first order removal kinetics may only proceed down to limiting threshold concentrations.

Sulphate reduction and the removal of carbon and ammonia in a laboratory-scale constructed wetland

Sulphate is a normal constituent of domestic wastewater and reduced sulphur compounds are known to be potent inhibitors of plant growth and certain microbial activities. However, the knowledge about sulphate reduction and the effect on the removal of C and N in constructed wetlands is still limited. Investigations in laboratory-scale constructed wetland reactors were performed to evaluate the interrelation of carbon and nitrogen removal with the sulphate reduction by use of artificial domestic wastewater. Carbon removal was found to be only slightly affected and remained at high levels of efficiency (75-90%). Only at sulphate reduction intensities above 75 mgl(-1) (50% removal), a decrease of carbon removal of up to 20% was observed. A highly contrary behaviour of ammonia removal was found in general, which decreased exponentially from 75% to 35% related to a linear increase of sulphate reduction up to 75 mgl(-1) (50% removal). Since sulphate removal is considered to be dependant on the load of electron donors, the carbon load of the system was varied. Variation of the load changed the intensities of sulphate reduction immediately, but did not influence the carbon removal effectiveness. Doubling of the carbon concentration of 200 mgl(-1) BOD(5) for domestic wastewater usually led to sulphate reduction of up to 150 mgl(-1) (100% removal). The findings show that, particularly in constructed wetland systems, the sulphur cycle in the rhizosphere is of high importance for performance of the waste water treatment and may initiate a reconsideration of the amount of sulphate present in the tap water systems.

Influence of the redox condition dynamics on the removal efficiency of a laboratory-scale constructed wetland

A laboratory reactor planted with Juncus effusus treating an artificial wastewater was used to investigate the short-term and long-term variations and interactions in the redox conditions as well as the removal efficiency of C and the N turnover. The permanent circulation of the process water enabled the micro-gradient processes to be evaluated for an operating period of 20 months. Steady-state conditions were achieved throughout the operating period with high mean removal efficiencies of 92.7% total organic carbon, 82.0% ammonia and 97.6% nitrate. Daily variations in the redox state of the rhizosphere of a few hundred mV were observed, ranging from about -200 to oxidized conditions of about +200 mV and driven by daylight. Variations in pH associated with changes in light and redox were linked to the dynamics of the fates of organic and inorganic carbon species. The ammonia removal processes were found to be firmly established, including for moderately reduced redox conditions with high efficiencies for E(h)>-50 mV. The enrichment of ammonia (up to 13 mg l(-1)) closely linked to the light, particularly during summertime, indicates the existence of hitherto unconsidered additional N turnover pathways in the rhizoplane involving N(2) produced by microbes or released by plants. C turnover was strongly related to the seasonal variation in illumination with minimum efficiencies during the dark season. In addition, it was characterized by oscillation with periods of approximately 1 month. The relationships found are dominant for biofilms on the rhizoplane and decisive for the removal efficiency of especially simple constructed and natural wetlands. The results highlight the importance of helophytes and their physiological specifics for removal processes.

Effects of plants and microorganisms in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment

Constructed wetlands are a natural alternative to technical methods of wastewater treatment. However, our understanding of the complex processes caused by the plants, microorganisms, soil matrix and substances in the wastewater, and how they all interact with each other, is still rather incomplete. In this article, a closer look will be taken at the mechanisms of both plants in constructed wetlands and the microorganisms in the root zone which come into play when they remove contaminants from wastewater. The supply of oxygen plays a crucial role in the activity and type of metabolism performed by microorganisms in the root zone. Plants' involvement in the input of oxygen into the root zone, in the uptake of nutrients and in the direct degradation of pollutants as well as the role of microorganisms are all examined in more detail. The ways in which these processes act to treat wastewater are dealt with in the following order: Technological aspects; The effect of root growth on the soil matrix; Gas transport in helophytes and the release of oxygen into the rhizosphere; The uptake of inorganic compounds by plants; The uptake of organic pollutants by plants and their metabolism; The release of carbon compounds by plants; Factors affecting the elimination of pathogenic germs.