Cognitive effort during note taking

The neuroscience of active learning and direct instruction

Throughout the educational system, students experiencing active learning pedagogy perform better and fail less than those taught through direct instruction. Can this be ascribed to differences in learning from a neuroscientific perspective? This review examines mechanistic, neuroscientific evidence that might explain differences in cognitive engagement contributing to learning outcomes between these instructional approaches. In classrooms, direct instruction comprehensively describes academic content, while active learning provides structured opportunities for learners to explore, apply, and manipulate content. Synaptic plasticity and its modulation by arousal or novelty are central to all learning and both approaches. As a form of social learning, direct instruction relies upon working memory. The reinforcement learning circuit, associated agency, curiosity, and peer-to-peer social interactions combine to enhance motivation, improve retention, and build higher-order-thinking skills in active learning environments. When working memory becomes overwhelmed, additionally engaging the reinforcement learning circuit improves retention, providing an explanation for the benefits of active learning. This analysis provides a mechanistic examination of how emerging neuroscience principles might inform pedagogical choices at all educational levels.

Evidence-Based Expository Intervention: A Tutorial for Speech-Language Pathologists

PURPOSE

This tutorial guides speech-language pathologists (SLPs) through the research base for expository intervention and evidence-based decision making for clinical implementation.

METHOD

In the first half of the tutorial, the nature and development of expository discourse is described, and then attention is turned to the research base that informs SLP expository intervention. The many educational domains in which relevant research can be found and the diverse terminology used are explained. From reading comprehension and compositional writing, two areas with strong research evidence that are suitable to SLP use-text structure and learning strategies-are identified. The second half of the tutorial focuses on crafting SLP interventions from the educational evidence. An expository intervention designed specifically for SLPs from this research base, called Sketch and Speak, is presented. In this intervention, visual and written note-taking strategies are combined with oral formulation and practice strategies and taught through individualized oral interactions around informational texts. SLPs are guided on how to adapt this and other expository treatments to their own priorities and service delivery situations while maintaining quality features or "active ingredients" of researched treatments.

CONCLUSIONS

There is considerable educational research on expository intervention. From this literature, SLPs can strategically adopt and adapt to implement evidence-based interventions to help students understand, speak, and write in this important discourse form.

Reactivity of the triple task on writing processes and product in adults with dyslexia

Introduction

The triple task (TT) is a method for assessing the dynamics of writing processes. It involves three tasks in one: writing a text, responding to a sound, and reporting the process. Previous research has mostly shown that the TT does not affect the writing process or the product. However, individuals with dyslexia often show difficulties in tasks that require organization, automation, integration of multiple processes, inhibition, and shifting/cognitive flexibility. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate whether TT affects the writing process and written product differently in adults with dyslexia compared to a control group of adults with typical reading skills.

Methods

Two groups of adult native Croatian speakers were included in this study: 20 adults with developmental dyslexia and 20 adults with typical reading skills; evenly distributed by: age (18-38 years), gender (13 males, 7 females per group), educational level, and nonverbal cognitive abilities. All participants wrote one text with a TT and another without. The writing of the text was tracked with a keystroke logging program - Inputlog. The two texts were compared at process and product level.

Results and discussion

The results showed that measures of writing processes and text quality in the groups of adults with dyslexia and adults with typical reading skills were unlikely to be differentially affected by TT. However, in the condition without TT, the total number of characters per minute was higher, more keys were typed per minute and more words were deleted. As expected, adults with dyslexia produced shorter texts of lower quality and with more errors; they also produced fewer characters per minute, used fewer keystrokes and typed fewer.

Conclusion

The study suggests that TT is unlikely to have a different impact on the writing process or written product in adults with dyslexia compared to adults with typical reading skills.

Sketch and Speak Expository Intervention for Adolescents: A Single-Case Experiment via Telepractice

PURPOSE

This study investigated the effects of Sketch and Speak strategy intervention on expressive and receptive expository discourse for adolescents with language-related learning disabilities (LLD).

METHOD

Three participants completed baseline and twelve 45- to 60-min individual treatment sessions in a multiple-baseline across participants design. In treatment, participants learned to take notes using pictography and conventional bulleted notes, orally generate sentences from their notes, and orally practice full sentences and oral reports. Session tests with varied levels of instructional support were used to collect outcome data on free-recall oral reports, short-answer question responses, and participant notes. A distal, age- referenced expository task and social validity questionnaires were administered pre-/postintervention.

RESULTS

Visual and statistical analyses revealed significant effects of treatment on the primary outcome measure of Oral Report Quality and on secondary outcomes of Note Quantity and Quality. There was no significant effect of treatment on Short-Answer Recall questions. Two participants generalized strategies during the treatment phase to independent performance on Oral Reports and one improved on Note Quality. All three participants improved on the distal expository measure. Social validity questionnaires showed participant awareness and buy-in of taught strategies, with potential for generalization at the high school level.

CONCLUSIONS

These adolescent students benefited from explicit instruction in note-taking strategies and systematic oral practice of expository discourse even within the challenging delivery setting of telepractice. This study provides evidence for the use of Sketch and Speak expository intervention with adolescents with LLD to improve comprehension and expression of grade-level material.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23681505.

Take a load off: examining partial and complete cognitive offloading of medication information

Although cognitive offloading, or the use of physical action to reduce internal cognitive demands, is a commonly used strategy in everyday life, relatively little is known about the conditions that encourage offloading and the memorial consequences of different offloading strategies for performance. Much of the extant work in this domain has focused on laboratory-based tasks consisting of word lists, letter strings, or numerical stimuli and thus makes little contact with real-world scenarios under which engaging in cognitive offloading might be likely. Accordingly, the current work examines offloading choice behavior and potential benefits afforded by offloading health-related information. Experiment 1 tests for internal memory performance for different pieces of missing medication interaction information. Experiment 2 tests internal memory and offloading under full offloading and partial offloading instructions for interaction outcomes that are relatively low severity (e.g., sweating). Experiment 3 extends Experiment 2 by testing offloading behavior and benefit in low-severity, medium-severity (e.g., backache), and high-severity interaction outcomes (e.g., heart attack). Here, we aimed to elucidate the potential benefits afforded by partial offloading and to examine whether there appears to be a preference for choosing to offload (i) difficult-to-remember information across outcomes that vary in severity, as well as (ii) information from more severe interaction outcomes. Results suggest that partial offloading benefits performance compared to relying on internal memory alone, but full offloading is more beneficial to performance than partial offloading.

Artificial intelligence inspired multilanguage framework for note-taking and qualitative content-based analysis of lectures

With the advent of technology and digitization, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and its tools for the imperative dissemination of information to learners are gaining more ground. During the process of the conveyance of lectures, it is mostly observed that students (learners) are supposed to take notes (minutes) of the subject matter being delivered to them. The existence of different factors like disturbance (noise) from the environment, learner's lack of interest, problems with the tutor's voice, and pronunciation, or others, may hinder the practice of preparing (or taking) lecture notes effectively. To tackle such an issue, we propose an artificial intelligence-inspired multilanguage framework for the generation of the lecture script (of complete) and minutes (only important contents) of the lecture (or speech). We also aimed to perform a qualitative content-based analysis of the lecture's content. Furthermore, we have validated the performance(accuracy) of the proposed framework with that of the manual note-taking method. The proposed framework outperforms its counterpart in terms of note-taking and performing the qualitative content-based analysis. In particular, this framework will assist the tutors in getting insights into their lecture delivery methods and materials. It will also help them improvise to a better approach in the future. The students will be benefited from the outcomes as they do not have to invest valuable time in note-taking/preparation.

It is like taking a ball for a walk: on boundary work in software development

In this paper, we explore how the choices of boundary work in software development influence the team autonomy enacted by team members. Boundary work is when people protect their professional individual autonomy, when they downplay that autonomy to collaborate over professional boundaries, and when they create new boundaries. Team autonomy is here defined as a team using their autonomy to collaborate in deciding their own output. We use an action research design, with varied methodologies carried out through three action cycles. Our findings show that when collective, collaborative boundary work is not performed, a sort of individualized zone occurs where individuals either try to do collaborative boundary work by themselves or seek individual autonomy. We propose that individual autonomy can be divided into professional individual autonomy and situationally dependent individual autonomy. This research contributes theoretically by showing how the absence of collaborative boundary work can lead to an individualized zone. Practically, it can improve team autonomy by enhancing the understanding of why teams should perform collaborative boundary work. The value of the concept of boundary work used in this setting involves studying the intentions for collaboration, not whether collaboration actually takes place.

No difference in factual or conceptual recall comprehension for tablet, laptop, and handwritten note-taking by medical students in the United States: a survey-based observational study

PURPOSE

Technological advances are changing how students approach learning. The traditional note-taking methods of longhand writing have been supplemented and replaced by tablets, smartphones, and laptop note-taking. It has been theorized that writing notes by hand requires more complex cognitive processes and may lead to better retention. However, few studies have investigated the use of tablet-based note-taking, which allows the incorporation of typing, drawing, highlights, and media. We therefore sought to confirm the hypothesis that tablet-based note-taking would lead to equivalent or better recall as compared to written note-taking.

METHODS

We allocated 68 students into longhand, laptop, or tablet note-taking groups, and they watched and took notes on a presentation on which they were assessed for factual and conceptual recall. A second short distractor video was shown, followed by a 30-minute assessment at the University of California, Irvine campus, over a single day period in August 2018. Notes were analyzed for content, supplemental drawings, and other media sources.

RESULTS

No significant difference was found in the factual or conceptual recall scores for tablet, laptop, and handwritten note-taking (P=0.61). The median word count was 131.5 for tablets, 121.0 for handwriting, and 297.0 for laptops (P=0.01). The tablet group had the highest presence of drawing, highlighting, and other media/tools.

CONCLUSION

In light of conflicting research regarding the best note-taking method, our study showed that longhand note-taking is not superior to tablet or laptop note-taking. This suggests students should be encouraged to pick the note-taking method that appeals most to them. In the future, traditional note-taking may be replaced or supplemented with digital technologies that provide similar efficacy with more convenience.

Comparing Teacher Priorities and Student Uptake in EMI Lectures: An Exploratory Study

English medium instruction (EMI) has been increasing in higher education with broad intentions of stimulating internationalization and cross-cultural learning experiences. This form of education presents opportunities and challenges for teachers and students alike. Key challenges involve various levels of second language (L2) speaking and listening abilities among teachers and students operating in EMI contexts. This exploratory study therefore examines the relationship between the main ideas two EMI lecturers in Sweden intended for their students to learn during lectures and the main ideas that EMI students report learning in the same lectures. Prior to six lectures, the teachers summarized to the researcher the main ideas to be included in the respective lecture. Immediately following the lecture, students provided their own summaries of the main ideas. A keyword analysis comparing the teachers’ intended messages and students’ reports shows that students may not be recognizing and acquiring the main ideas that the teacher intends. Further analysis distinguished two sub-groups of students: those with self-reported Swedish as a first language (L1) and those with self-reported L1s other than Swedish. A binomial proportion test showed that L1 impacted the amount of lecture main idea key words reported by the students in this study. The paper closes with a pedagogic perspective encouraging EMI lecturers to monitor student uptake on a regular basis and adjust their lecture delivery to support better learning and retention of content delivered via EMI.

Production Improves Visual and Auditory Text Memory in Younger and Older Adults

INTRODUCTION

The production effect refers to memory benefits for materials that were produced (e.g., read aloud) relative to not produced (e.g., read silently) at study. Previous works have found a production benefit for younger and older adults studying written words and for young adults studying written text. The present study aimed to extend these findings by examining the effect of production on text memory in younger and older adults, in the visual, and in the auditory modalities.

METHODS

A group of young adults (n = 30) and a group of older adults (n = 30) learned informational texts, presented either visually or aurally. In each text, half of the sentences were learned by production (reading aloud or writing) and half by no production (reading silently or listening), followed by fill-in-the-blank tests.

RESULTS

An overall memory performance was found to be similar for both groups, with an advantage for the auditory modality. For both groups, more test items were filled in correctly when the relevant information appeared in the produced than in nonproduced sentences, showing the learners' ability to use distinctiveness information. The production effects were larger for older than younger adults, in both modalities.

DISCUSSION

Since older adults are increasingly engage in learning, it is important to develop high-quality structured learning programs for this population. The current results demonstrate the preserved ability of older adults to successfully memorize texts and may guide planning of such programs. Specifically, since learning via the auditory modality yields superior performance for learners across age-groups, it may be recommended for text learning. Because older adults showed larger benefits from active production of the study material, it may be used to better remember educationally relevant material.

Acceptance of productivity software as a course management and collaboration tool among student pharmacists

INTRODUCTION

The acceleration and availability of digital tools has fundamentally changed the classroom environment, making selecting the correct tools an increasingly important function for instructors. To assist educators seeking to introduce such tools into the classroom, this research describes the acceptance of productivity software as a pharmacy management course and collaboration tool by second-year student pharmacists.

METHODS

A mixed methods approach assessed student pharmacists' acceptance and use of a cloud-based, productivity platform. All students were provided with Evernote Business to manage group-based assignments, facilitate team-based projects, and store course materials. Students were surveyed at three time points throughout the semester using a validated instrument based on the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). Software acceptance and applicability were assessed across time points and structural equation modeling determined UTAUT model fit. Focus groups provided direct student feedback guided by UTAUT.

RESULTS

Baseline technology acceptance was lower for Evernote than Blackboard. Effort expectancy and attitudes toward technology improved in three of four items each for Evernote and anxiety toward using the new software declined from baseline. Model fit was not ideal, suggesting similar conditions for acceptance of either platform and performance expectancy may not significantly predict intention to use. Student feedback suggested that acceptance may be improved if software has college-wide buy-in and was required.

CONCLUSIONS

Introducing productivity software in the middle of the curriculum is not ideal, but could be impactful if provided earlier, integrated with existing systems, and aligned with observed students' learning needs.

Speaking like a scientist: A multiple case study on sketch and speak intervention to improve expository discourse

PURPOSE

This descriptive multiple case study examined the effects of a contextualized expository strategy intervention on supported and independent note-taking, verbal rehearsal, and reporting skills for three elementary students with language disorders.

METHOD

Two 9-year-old fourth grade students and one 11-year-old sixth grade student with language disorders participated. The intervention was delivered as sixteen individual 20-minute sessions across nine weeks by the school speech-language pathologist. Students learned to take written and pictographic notes from expository texts and use verbal formulation and rehearsal of individual sentences and whole reports in varied learning contexts. To explore both emergent and independent accomplishments, performance was examined in final intervention session presentations and pre/post intervention testing.

RESULTS

Following the intervention, all three students effectively used notes and verbal rehearsal to prepare and present fluent, organized, accurate, confident oral reports to an audience. From pre- to post-test, the students showed a range of improvements in the quality of notes, use of verbal rehearsal, holistic quality of oral and written reporting, and strategy awareness.

CONCLUSIONS

Sketch and Speak shows potential as an expository intervention for students who struggle with academic language learning. The results support further examination of this intervention for supported strategy use by younger students and independent use by older students.

Caregivers' Experience of Caring for a Family Member with Alzheimer's Disease: A Content Analysis of Longitudinal Social Media Communication

Background: The population aging together with an increased incidence of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) should also be accompanied by a growing interest in healthcare research. Therefore, this study examines the nature of the caregiver’s work, its mental and physical demands, experience and questions, and the relationship between the person with AD, the caregiver, and family members. Methods: As social media has become the place where people share family situations, a Facebook private discussion group of caregivers was chosen as the analytical data source. The study documented the daily-life situations of one-hundred dyads based on 2110 posts published during a six-month or longer period. A content analysis classified communication into 35 categories of basic, instrumental, and extended activities of daily livings (ADLs) and newly designed caregiver’s daily issues (CDIs). Results: The frequently discussed topics were related to exhaustion and feelings of “giving up” by caregivers and interpersonal communication and help from family members. The highest support was found for the topics of aging and dying and family events. Conclusion: The communications of caregivers were diverse and rather associated with co-occupational ADLs and CDIs than basic or instrumental ADLs. The support of the group was mainly provided in coping with fundamental life changes.

Analyses of L2 Learners' Text Writing Strategy: Process-Oriented Perspective

Second language writing researchers have examined the affordances of Automated Writing Evaluation programs in providing immediate feedback that helps improve students' writing outputs. However, a little is known about tracking learners' process during writing essays and whether much/less pauses made by learners could predict good/poor quality of students' writing output. This article aims to address this issue by recording a case study of 8 postgraduate students' pauses during writing two types of text genre; descriptive and argumentative essays. Their pauses have been recorded using Keystroke logging program-Input Log 7.0 (Leijten and Van Waes in Writ Commun 30:358-392, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088313491692) and their screen activities were captured by Active Presenter program. Findings revealed that the students' pauses were significantly higher in word boundary than in sentence and/or paragraph boundaries. Moreover, on word boundary, pauses before words were significantly higher than that after words for both types of text genre. Concerning pauses across text genre, students' pauses were significantly higher in the argumentative essay than that of the descriptive essay. Multiple regression revealed negative correlation between much pauses and poor quality of students' product in the descriptive essay while there was no correlation found in the argumentative essay.

Exploring EEG Effective Connectivity Network in Estimating Influence of Color on Emotion and Memory

Color is a perceptual stimulus that has a significant impact on improving human emotion and memory. Studies have revealed that colored multimedia learning materials (MLMs) have a positive effect on learner's emotion and learning where it was assessed by subjective/objective measurements. This study aimed to quantitatively assess the influence of colored MLMs on emotion, cognitive processes during learning, and long-term memory (LTM) retention using electroencephalography (EEG). The dataset consisted of 45 healthy participants, and MLMs were designed in colored or achromatic illustrations to elicit emotion and that to assess its impact on LTM retention after 30-min and 1-month delay. The EEG signal analysis was first started to estimate the effective connectivity network (ECN) using the phase slope index and expand it to characterize the ECN pattern using graph theoretical analysis. EEG results showed that colored MLMs had influences on theta and alpha networks, including (1) an increased frontal-parietal connectivity (top-down processing), (2) a larger number of brain hubs, (3) a lower clustering coefficient, and (4) a higher local efficiency, indicating that color influences information processing in the brain, as reflected by ECN, together with a significant improvement in learner's emotion and memory performance. This is evidenced by a more positive emotional valence and higher recall accuracy for groups who learned with colored MLMs than that of achromatic MLMs. In conclusion, this paper demonstrated how the EEG ECN parameters could help quantify the influences of colored MLMs on emotion and cognitive processes during learning.

Note-taking format and difficulty impact learning from instructor-provided lecture notes

The method students use to take notes impacts how they process lecture information. The current experiment examined how the format and amount of content included in instructor-provided notes affect learning. Undergraduate students listened to a brief audio-recorded science lecture that emphasised independent facts, while using one of four note-taking guides. These guides varied in their format (outline notes, cloze notes) and level of difficulty (less-difficult, more-difficult). Outline notes included a partially complete organisational framework, promoting knowledge of relationships among concepts. Cloze notes included all lecture content with select words missing, encouraging processing of specific details. Metacognitive ratings and an objective cognitive load measure confirmed that outline note-taking was the most difficult method. However, outline notes led to higher performance than cloze notes on free recall and inference questions, and equal performance on verbatim questions. These benefits were greatest in the more-difficult outline notes condition, when less information was provided. These findings are consistent with the material-appropriate difficulty framework. Increasing note-taking difficulty was desirable, but only when the activity elicited semantic processing that complemented the type of processing afforded by the learning material.

Note-Taking Skill Among Bilingual Students in Academia: Literacy, Language and Cognitive Examination

The ability to take notes while listening to a lecture is important and complicated. The main goal of the current study was to examine note-taking skills among students with Hebrew as a first language (L1) and students with Arabic as a first language and Hebrew as a second language (L2). Literacy, language, cognitive, and note-taking skills were assessed among 63 undergraduate students (28 L1). L1 students were found to produce notes of higher quality than L2 students. Moreover, there were significant differences between the groups on measures of vocabulary, word reading fluency, and handwriting speed. The results also revealed that first language was the most important variable in predicting note quality, followed by word reading fluency. Educational implications and directions for further research are discussed in light of the findings.

A beginning exploration of text generation abilities in university students with a history of reading difficulties

There is a fundamental lack of understanding of how university students with a history of reading difficulties perform on various demanding literacy tasks. We compared the text generation skills, measured with timed summary writing and proofreading tasks, of university students with a history of reading difficulties to those of students with no such history. We further examined whether between-group differences in text generation skills remained after controlling for transcription skills (spelling and handwriting fluency), word reading, and reading comprehension. Forty-six university students with a history of reading difficulties were matched on age, gender, and non-verbal intelligence to 46 students without this history. We found that the students with a history of reading difficulties performed poorer on both measures of text generation than students without this history. When differences in transcription skills, word reading, and reading comprehension were controlled, we found that only differences in timed summary writing remained significant. These results suggest that students with a history of reading difficulties experience challenges with specific aspects of text generation that are beyond what one would expect from their difficulties with transcription and word reading. We suggest that, if not addressed, text generation deficits are likely to create obstacles for academic success.

The art of note taking with mobile devices in medical education

BACKGROUND

Students use mobile devices extensively in their everyday life, and the new technology is adopted in study usage. Since 2013, the University of Helsinki has given new medical and dental students iPads for study use. Simultaneously, an action research project on mobile learning started focusing on these students' mobile device usage throughout their study years. Note taking is crucial in academic studies, but the research evidence in this area is scarce. The aims of this study were to explore medical and dental students' self-reported study uses of mobile devices and their best practices of mobile note taking.

METHOD

An action research project began in 2013 and followed the first student cohort (124 medical and 52 dental students) with iPads from the first until the fifth study year. We explored students' descriptions of their most important study uses of mobile devices and their perceptions of note taking with iPads. The longitudinal data were collected with online questionnaires over the years. The answers to open-ended questions were examined using qualitative content analysis. The findings were triangulated with another question on note taking and focus-group interviews.

RESULTS

The response rates varied between 73 and 95%. Note taking was the most frequently and consistently reported study use of iPads during the study years. While taking notes, students processed the new information in an accomplished way and personalised the digital learning materials by making comments, underlining, marking images and drawing. The visual nature of their learning materials stimulated learning. Students organised the notes for retention in their personalised digital library. In the clinical studies, medical students faced the teachers' resistance and ambivalence to mobile device usage. This hindered the full-scale benefit of the novel technology in the clinical context.

CONCLUSIONS

Efficient digital note taking practices were pivotal to students in becoming mobile learners. Having all their notes and learning materials organised in their personal digital libraries enabled the students to retrieve them anywhere, anytime, both when studying for examinations and treating patients in the clinical practice. The challenges the medical students met using mobile devices in the clinical setting require further studies.

The impact of individual differences on jurors' note taking during trials and recall of trial evidence, and the association between the type of evidence recalled and verdicts

Although note taking during trials is known to enhance jurors’ recall of trial evidence, little is known about whether individual differences in note taking underpin this effect. Individual differences in handwriting speed, working memory, and attention may influence juror’s note taking. This, in turn, may influence their recall. It may also be the case that if jurors note down and recall more incriminating than non-incriminating evidence (or vice versa), then this may predict their verdict. Three studies examined the associations between the aforementioned individual differences, the amount of critical evidence jurors noted down during a trial, the amount of critical evidence they recalled, and the verdicts they reached. Participants had their handwriting speed, short-term memory, working memory, and attention assessed. They then watched a trial video (some took notes), reached a verdict, and recalled as much trial information as possible. We found that jurors with faster handwriting speed (Study 1), higher short-term memory capacity (Study 2), and higher sustained attention capacity (Study 3) noted down, and later recalled, the most critical trial evidence. However, working memory storage capacity, information processing ability (Study 2) and divided attention (Study 3) were not associated with note taking or recall. Further, the type of critical evidence jurors predominantly recalled predicted their verdicts, such that jurors who recalled more incriminating evidence were more likely to reach a guilty verdict, and jurors who recalled more non-incriminating evidence were less likely to do so. The implications of these findings are discussed.

Sketch and Speak: An Expository Intervention Using Note-Taking and Oral Practice for Children With Language-Related Learning Disabilities

Purpose

This preliminary study investigated an intervention procedure employing 2 types of note-taking and oral practice to improve expository reporting skills.

Procedure

Forty-four 4th to 6th graders with language-related learning disabilities from 9 schools were assigned to treatment or control conditions that were balanced for grade, oral language, and other features. The treatment condition received 6 30-min individual or pair sessions from the school of speech-language pathologists (SLPs). Treatment involved reducing statements from grade-level science articles into concise ideas, recording the ideas as pictographic and conventional notes, and expanding from the notes into full oral sentences that are then combined into oral reports. Participants were pretested and posttested on taking notes from grade-level history articles and using the notes to give oral reports. Posttesting also included written reports 1 to 3 days following the oral reports.

Results

The treatment group showed significantly greater improvement than the control group on multiple quality features of the notes and oral reports. Quantity, holistic oral quality, and delayed written reports were not significantly better. The SLPs reported high levels of student engagement and learning of skills and content within treatment. They attributed the perceived benefits to the elements of simplicity, visuals, oral practice, repeated opportunities, and visible progress.

Conclusion

This study indicates potential for Sketch and Speak to improve student performance in expository reporting and gives direction for strengthening and further investigating this novel SLP treatment.

Supplemental Material

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.7268651

Note-taking and science inquiry in an open-ended learning environment

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Usage of digital notepad is related to performance in science inquiry tasks in OELE.

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Both taking and reaccessing notes facilitate science inquiry performance.

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Elaborative and reproductive notes’ relationship with success is content dependent.

Note-taking is important for academic success and has been thoroughly studied in traditional classroom contexts. Recent advancements of technology have led to more students taking notes on computers, and in different situations than are common in traditional instructional contexts. However, research on computer-based note-taking is still an emerging area, and findings from these studies are mixed. In this exploratory study, we conducted multilevel analysis to comprehensively investigate the relationship between note-taking measures and subsequent student success at science inquiry among middle school students, using two scenarios of an open-ended learning environment named Virtual Performance Assessments. Analysis revealed an advantage for content elaborative note-taking over content reproductive note-taking conditional on the source of notes taken, but other measures were less consistent between the two scenarios. Implications of the findings and limitations of this research are also discussed.

Training improved the note taking skill of nursing students in Aksum University; northern Ethiopia: a classroom-based action research

OBJECTIVE

Note taking is an effective strategy to improve students' learning. It is considered that very few learners are fit enough for basic note taking skill. Thus, this study was aimed to assess note taking skill and motivation for learning of nursing students and to take action on the identified gaps.

RESULTS

The mean note taking skill score is 22.95 ± 4.766. The study demonstrates 9.1% of students had good note taking skill but 54.5 and 36.4% had moderate and poor note taking skills respectively. Regarding learning motivation, 13.6% had motivation and the rest 68.2 and 18.2% had moderate and poor motivation for learning to be a nurse respectively. On the items used to examine motivation, 54.1% of students were less motivated to ask questions in classroom though clarification is needed. Reasons for poor note taking showed 68.2 and 27.3% responded due to "most faculties are simply reading from the slides" and "students are confident that instructors will give slide copies later" respectively were the two main cited reasons respectively. Training nursing students about note taking techniques has made considerable impact on student's learning behavior.

The interrupted learner: How distractions during live and video lectures influence learning outcomes

New instructional technologies have been increasingly incorporated into the medical school learning environment, including lecture video recordings as a substitute for live lecture attendance. The literature presents varying conclusions regarding how this alternative experience impacts students' academic success. Previously, a multi-year study of the first-year medical histology component at the University of Michigan found that live lecture attendance was positively correlated with learning success, while lecture video use was negatively correlated. Here, three cohorts of first-year medical students (N = 439 respondents, 86.6% response rate) were surveyed in greater detail regarding lecture attendance and video usage, focusing on study behaviors that may influence histology learning outcomes. Students who reported always attending lectures or viewing lecture videos had higher average histology scores than students who employed an inconsistent strategy (i.e., mixing live attendance and video lectures). Several behaviors were negatively associated with histology performance. Students who engaged in "non-lecture activities" (e.g., social media use), students who reported being interrupted while watching the lecture video, or feeling sleepy/losing focus had lower scores than their counterparts not engaging in these behaviors. This study suggests that interruptions and distractions during medical learning activities-whether live or recorded-can have an important impact on learning outcomes. Anat Sci Educ 11: 366-376. © 2017 American Association of Anatomists.

Idea units in notes and summaries for read texts by keyboard and pencil in middle childhood students with specific learning disabilities: Cognitive and brain findings

Seven children with dyslexia and/or dysgraphia (2 girls, 5 boys, M=11 years) completed fMRI connectivity scans before and after twelve weekly computerized lessons in strategies for reading source material, taking notes, and writing summaries by touch typing or groovy pencils. During brain scanning they completed two reading comprehension tasks-one involving single sentences and one involving multiple sentences. From before to after intervention, fMRI connectivity magnitude changed significantly during sentence level reading comprehension (from right angular gyrus→right Broca's) and during text level reading comprehension (from right angular gyrus→cingulate). Proportions of ideas units in children's writing compared to idea units in source texts did not differ across combinations of reading-writing tasks and modes. Yet, for handwriting/notes, correlations insignificant before the lessons became significant after the strategy instruction between proportion of idea units and brain connectivity at all levels of language in reading comprehension (word-, sentence-, and text) during scanning; but for handwriting/summaries, touch typing/notes, and touch typing/summaries changes in those correlations from insignificant to significant after strategy instruction occurred only at text level reading comprehension during scanning. Thus, handwriting during note-taking may benefit all levels of language during reading comprehension, whereas all other combinations of modes and writing tasks in this exploratory study appear to benefit only the text level of reading comprehension. Neurological and educational significance of the interdisciplinary research findings for integrating reading and writing and future research directions are discussed.

Verbal Working Memory in Older Adults: The Roles of Phonological Capacities and Processing Speed

PURPOSE

This study examined the potential roles of phonological sensitivity and processing speed in age-related declines of verbal working memory.

METHOD

Twenty younger and 25 older adults with age-normal hearing participated. Two measures of verbal working memory were collected: digit span and serial recall of words. Processing speed was indexed using response times during those tasks. Three other measures were also obtained, assessing phonological awareness, processing, and recoding.

RESULTS

Forward and reverse digit spans were similar across groups. Accuracy on the serial recall task was poorer for older than for younger adults, and response times were slower. When response time served as a covariate, the age effect for accuracy was reduced. Phonological capacities were equivalent across age groups, so we were unable to account for differences across age groups in verbal working memory. Nonetheless, when outcomes for only older adults were considered, phonological awareness and processing speed explained significant proportions of variance in serial recall accuracy.

CONCLUSION

Slowing in processing abilities accounts for the primary trajectory of age-related declines in verbal working memory. However, individual differences in phonological capacities explain variability among individual older adults.

An Elective Course in Cardiovascular Electrophysiology for Pharmacy Learners

Objective. To implement an integrated, comprehensive, and learner-centered elective course focused at exposing learners to the interpretation of electrocardiograms and highlighting the mechanisms underlining the abnormal electrophysiological events. Design. Learners were presented with foundational information on the mechanisms underlying electrophysiological changes associated with the development of arrhythmias. They then discussed the interpretation of electrocardiogram (ECG) recordings and diagnosis of cardiovascular events. Teaching formats included "chalk-talk" and didactic sessions, case-based exercises providing hands-on evaluation of ECG recordings, and high-fidelity simulation presenting cases of arrhythmias. The course design emphasized critical thinking, learner engagement, and development of problem-solving skills. Learners were assessed by formal assignments, examinations, and in-class quizzes. Assessment. Learner comprehension of the material was assessed using cumulative examinations, in-class quizzes, assignments, and in-class presentations. Learner evaluations showed that the case-based discussions, practice ECGs, review tables, and illustrations enhanced course performance and retention of complex material. Conclusion. The elective course provided in-depth exposure to the mechanisms underlying electrophysiological aberrations resulting in arrhythmias. It gave learners an opportunity to learn the art of ECG interpretation and to apply their knowledge in simulated scenarios. As clinical teams adopt a multidisciplinary team approach to patient care, acquiring these skills enriches learner experiences and allows them to expand their role and professional opportunities as pharmacists.

Brain Friendly Teaching-Reducing Learner's Cognitive Load

Many didactic lectures induce a cognitive load in learners out of proportion to the content that they need to learn (or can learn) during that teaching session. This is due in part to the content, and in part to the way it is displayed or presented. By reducing the cognitive load on our audience, we can increase long-term retention of information. This article briefly summarizes some of the science behind cognitive load as it relates to presentations, and identifies simple steps to reduce it, while maximizing learning.

Writing on the board as students' preferred teaching modality in a physiology course

The introduction of PowerPoint presentation software has generated a paradigm shift in the delivery of lectures. PowerPoint has now almost entirely replaced chalkboard or whiteboard teaching at the undergraduate and graduate levels. This study investigated whether undergraduate biology students preferred to have lectures delivered by PowerPoint or written on the board as well as the reasons behind their preference. Two upper-division physiology courses were surveyed over a period of 7 yr. A total of 1,905 students (86.7%) indicated they preferred lectures delivered by "writing on the board" compared to 291 students (13.3%) who preferred PowerPoint. Common themes drawn from explanations reported by students in favor of writing on the board included: 1) more appropriate pace, 2) facilitation of note taking, and 3) greater alertness and attention. Common themes in favor of PowerPoint included 1) increased convenience, 2) focus on listening, and 3) more accurate and readable notes. Based on the students' very strong preference for writing on the board and the themes supporting that preference, we recommend that instructors incorporate elements of the writing on the board delivery style into whatever teaching modality is used. If instructors plan to use PowerPoint, the presentation should be paced, constructed, and delivered to provide the benefits of lectures written on the board. The advantages of writing on the board can be also incorporated into instruction intended to occur outside the classroom, such as animated narrated videos as part of the flipped classroom approach.

Note-taking and Handouts in The Digital Age

Most educators consider note-taking a critical component of formal classroom learning. Advancements in technology such as tablet computers, mobile applications, and recorded lectures are altering classroom dynamics and affecting the way students compose and review class notes. These tools may improve a student's ability to take notes, but they also may hinder learning. In an era of dynamic technology developments, it is important for educators to routinely examine and evaluate influences on formal and informal learning environments. This paper discusses key background literature on student note-taking, identifies recent trends and potential implications of mobile technologies on classroom note-taking and student learning, and discusses future directions for note-taking in the context of digitally enabled lifelong learning.

Working memory and second language comprehension and production: a meta-analysis

Although working memory (WM) figures centrally in many theories of second language (L2) proficiency development and processing, some have argued that the importance of WM is overstated (e.g., Juffs, Transactions of the Philological Society, 102, 199-225, 2004). Despite many studies over the past two decades, the literature lacks a quantitative synthesis of the extant results. In this article, we report a meta-analysis of data from 79 samples involving 3,707 participants providing 748 effect sizes. The results indicate that WM is positively associated with both L2 processing and proficiency outcomes, with an estimated population effect size (ρ) of .255. In additional analyses, we assessed whether the WM-criterion relationship was modulated by potential covariates identified in the literature search (i.e., participant characteristics, WM measure features, criterion measure factors, and publication status). The results of the covariate analyses indicated larger effect sizes for the executive control (vs. storage) component of WM, and for verbal (vs. nonverbal) measures of WM. Minimal publication bias was detected, suggesting that WM has a robust, positive relationship with L2 outcomes. We discuss the implications of these results for models of WM and theories of L2 processing and L2 proficiency development.

Deaf/hard-of-hearing and other postsecondary learners' retention of STEM content with tablet computer-based notes

Four groups of postsecondary students, 25 who were deaf/hard of hearing (D/HH), 25 with a learning disability, 25 who were English language learners (ELLs), and 25 without an identified disability studied notes that included text and graphical information based on a physics or a marine biology lecture. The latter 3 groups were normally hearing. All groups had higher scores on post- than on pretests for each lecture, with each group showing generally similar gains in amount of material learned from the pretest to the posttest. For each lecture, the D/HH students scored lower on the pre- and posttests than the other 3 groups of participants. Results indicated that students acquired measurable amounts of information from studying these types of notes for relatively short periods and that the notes have equal potential to support the acquisition of information by each of these groups of students.