Direct Trifluoromethylation of the CH Bond

Cu-catalyzed photoredox chlorotrifluoromethylation of polysubstituted alkenes and pharmacological evaluation

A visible-light-mediated chlorotrifluoromethylation catalyzed by a copper-based photo-redox catalyst of internal alkenes is reported. The reaction proceeds with complete regioselectivity under mild reaction conditions using commercially available F3CSO2Cl as both the trifluoromethyl and chlorine source, leading to the synthesis of added-value chemicals with atom-economy. A vast array of internal alkenes were functionalized in decent to good yields, highlighting a great tolerance to various functional groups. A radical process starting from a single electron reduction of F3CSO2Cl with an excited copper catalyst was evidenced, and the synthetic utility of our products was showcased by the synthesis of valuable molecules such as α-trifluoromethylated amides, α-trifluoromethylated-β-aminoamides, and trifluoromethyl alkenes. In addition, the library was evaluated in vitro for its cytotoxicity against lung carcinoma (A549) and colorectal adenocarcinoma (DLD-1) cell lines, and for its antifungal and antibacterial activities against C. albicans, E. coli and S. aureus strains, respectively. Compounds 2a, 2m, 2n, and 2o demonstrated anticancer activities, while compounds 2a, 6g, and 6h exhibited weak antibacterial activities, underscoring the therapeutic potential of this class of molecules and suggesting opportunities for further optimization.

Recent advances in electrochemical 1,2-difunctionalization of alkenes: mechanisms and perspectives

In recent years, significant achievements have been made in the field of electroorganic chemistry regarding the difunctionalization of alkenes. Researchers have developed innovative strategies utilizing the unique reactivity of electrochemical processes to synthesize complex molecules with high regioselectivity and stereoselectivity. This technology is widely applied in the total synthesis of natural products and in the pharmaceutical industry. This article reviews the research progress in the electrochemical difunctionalization of alkenes through three different radical-mediated pathways over the past five years. It includes discussions on 1,2-stereoselective and non-diastereoselective difunctionalization reactions, rearrangements, intramolecular migrations, and cyclization processes. The summary emphasizes innovative electrode designs, reaction mechanisms, and the integration with other emerging technologies, highlighting the potential of this method in modern organic chemistry. Additionally, it aims to address current challenges and propose possible solutions, providing a promising direction for electrochemically mediated difunctionalization reactions of alkenes.

Electrochemical Decarboxylative Trifluoromethylation of Cinnamic Acids Revisited: A Combined Experimental and Computational Study

β-(Trifluoromethyl)styrenes are potentially useful building blocks for the synthesis of organofluorine compounds because their electron-deficient C=C double bonds can undergo diverse transformations. One of the most practical methods for preparing β-(trifluoromethyl)styrenes is the decarboxylative trifluoromethylation of readily available cinnamic acid derivatives using the Langlois reagent as a less expensive trifluoromethyl source. We revisited the electrochemical decarboxylative trifluoromethylation of cinnamic acid derivatives to identify modified conditions that reduce the loading of the Langlois reagent without additional additives. The reaction mechanism was computationally investigated to gain insight into the dependence of the product yields on the aryl terminal groups. The synthetic utility of the obtained β-(trifluoromethyl)styrenes was demonstrated by their transformation into 4-aryl-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyrrolidines.

Triflate Salts as Alternative Non-Chlorinated Oxidants for the Oxidative Chemical Vapor Deposition and Electronic Engineering of Conjugated Polymers

Oxidative chemical vapor deposition (oCVD) stands as an attractive approach for the synthesis, engineering, and integration of conjugated polymers for advanced electronic and optoelectronic applications. In oCVD, the oxidant significantly influences the conformational and optoelectronic properties of the resulting conjugated polymer thin films. In this work, triflate salts of iron(III) and copper(II) (Fe(OTf)3 and Cu(OTf)2, respectively) are investigated for the first time as suitable alternative oxidants to the widely used iron(III) chloride (FeCl3) for the oCVD of conjugated polymers. Structural and compositional characterizations of the resulting thin films evidenced the successful polymerization of cobalt(II) 5,15-diphenyl porphyrin using either Fe(OTf)3 or Cu(OTf)2. Along with an intermolecular dehydrogenative C-C coupling reaction, the occurrence of side reactions, such as the inclusion of -CF3 groups and demetalation and subsequent insertion of copper(II) in the porphyrin macrocycle when using Cu(OTf)2, were evidenced. Interestingly, the inclusion of -CF3 groups into the polymer backbone when using triflate salts results in a deepening of the frontier energy levels, while the insertion of copper(II) contributes to a reduction in the band gap energy. This work demonstrates that the careful selection of the oxidant agent in oCVD enables fine-tuning the optoelectronic properties of conjugated polymers to suit specific application requirements.

Electron Donor-Acceptor Complex Driven Photocatalyst-Free Trifluoromethylation of Heterocycles

Heterocyclic trifluoromethylation is efficiently initiated through a photochemical reaction utilizing an electron donor-acceptor (EDA) complex, proceeding smoothly without the use of photocatalysts, transition-metal catalysts, or additional oxidants. This method has been optimized through extensive experimentation, demonstrating its versatility and efficacy across various substrates, including quinoxalinones, coumarins, and indolones. Notably, this approach enables the practical synthesis of trifluoromethylated quinoxalinones on a gram scale. Mechanistic investigations that incorporate radical trapping and ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy, confirmed the formation of the an EDA complex and elucidated the reaction pathways. This study highlights the crucial role of EDA photoactivation in trifluoromethylation, significantly expanding the application scope of EDA complexes in chemical synthesis.

Unveiling the Selectivity of Ru(II)-Catalyzed C-H Activation for Defluorinative Cyclization of 2-Arylbenzimidazole and Trifluoromethyl Diazo: A DFT Study

The synthesis of monofluorinated heterocyclic compounds by C-H activation combined with defluorination is useful. Studies on the reaction mechanism and selectivity have shown that these processes play a positive role in promoting the development of monofluorinated reactions. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations were performed to investigate the mechanism and selectivity of Ru(II)-catalyzed 2-arylbenzimidazole with trifluoromethyl diazo. DFT calculations showed that C-H activation occurs through a concerted metalation/deprotonation (CMD) mechanism. After that, deprotonation and defluorinative cyclization are assisted by acetate and trifluoroethanol (TFE). Further mechanistic insights through noncovalent interaction (NCI) analysis were also obtained to elucidate the origin of the selectivity in the defluorination process.

Enantioselective Desymmetrization of Trifluoromethylated Tertiary Benzhydrols via Hydrogen-Acceptor-Free Ir-Catalyzed Dehydrogenative C-H Silylation: Decisive Role of the Trifluoromethyl Group

Although the trifluoromethyl (CF3) group is one of the most important fluorinated groups owing to its significant ability to modulate pharmacological properties, constructing trifluoromethylated stereogenic centers in an enantioselective manner has been a formidable challenge. Herein, we report the development of the enantioselective desymmetrization of trifluoromethylated benzhydrols via intramolecular dehydrogenative silylation using Ir catalysts with chiral pyridine-oxazoline (PyOX) ligands. The produced benzoxasilol was transformed into several unsymmetrical benzhydrols via iododesilylation and subsequent transition-metal-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions. Moreover, the same Ir catalyst system was used for the kinetic resolution of unsymmetrical trifluoromethylated benzhydrols.

Photocatalyzed Enantioselective Functionalization of C(sp3)-H Bonds

Owing to its diverse activation processes including single-electron transfer (SET) and hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT), visible-light photocatalysis has emerged as a sustainable and efficient platform for organic synthesis. These processes provide a powerful avenue for the direct functionalization of C(sp3)-H bonds under mild conditions. Over the past decade, there have been remarkable advances in the enantioselective functionalization of the C(sp3)-H bond via photocatalysis combined with conventional asymmetric catalysis. Herein, we summarize the advances in asymmetric C(sp3)-H functionalization involving visible-light photocatalysis and discuss two main pathways in this emerging field: (a) SET-driven carbocation intermediates are followed by stereospecific nucleophile attacks; and (b) photodriven alkyl radical intermediates are further enantioselectively captured by (i) chiral π-SOMOphile reagents, (ii) stereoselective transition-metal complexes, and (iii) another distinct stereoscopic radical species. We aim to summarize key advances in reaction design, catalyst development, and mechanistic understanding, to provide new insights into this rapidly evolving area of research.

Bi-Catalyzed Trifluoromethylation of C(sp2)-H Bonds under Light

We disclose a Bi-catalyzed C-H trifluoromethylation of (hetero)arenes using CF3SO2Cl under light irradiation. The catalytic method permits the direct functionalization of various heterocycles bearing distinct functional groups. The structural and computational studies suggest that the process occurs through an open-shell redox manifold at bismuth, comprising three unusual elementary steps for a main group element. The catalytic cycle starts with rapid oxidative addition of CF3SO2Cl to a low-valent Bi(I) catalyst, followed by a light-induced homolysis of Bi(III)-O bond to generate a trifluoromethyl radical upon extrusion of SO2, and is closed with a hydrogen-atom transfer to a Bi(II) radical intermediate.

Extreme NMR shielding in fluoro-nitrogen cations

The structure and NMR shielding of a set of N-F containing cations is reported to near-quantitative accuracy from extensive ab initio calculations. Currently, the shortest experimentally confirmed N-F bond is 1.2461(10) Å in NNF+, however CCSD(T)-F12b/cc-pVQZ-F12 optimised geometries suggest that even shorter N-F bonds are possible for both monocations (1.236 Å, HNF+) and dications (1.098 Å, NF2+). NMR shielding constants have been calculated in a composite manner with individual components from coupled-cluster expansions up to CCSDTQP and basis sets up to aug-cc-pCV8Z, together with vibrational and relativistic corrections. 15N and 19F NMR chemical shifts correlate well with available experimental data. Extreme 19F chemical shifts are predicted for HNF+ (1628.9 ppm) and NH2F2+ (1298.0 ppm), which are by far the largest 19F chemical shifts ever reported and well outside the known range of +865 ppm (F2O2) to -448 ppm (ClF). The 15N chemical shift of -1283.07 ppm in HNF+ is similarly extreme, being well outside the known range of 15N chemical shifts of -730 to 260 ppm (CH3NO2 reference). This work highlights the application of state-of-the-art theoretical techniques, and provides accurate NMR properties of both isolated and yet unknown N-F cations, which can serve to guide and supplement NMR experimentation.

Regioselective C-H Trifluoromethylation and Its Related Reactions of (Hetero)aromatic Compounds

Fluorinated functional groups, including trifluoromethyl group, play important roles in the development of drugs, agrochemicals, and organic functional materials. Therefore, the development of highly effective and practical reactions to introduce fluorinated functional groups into (hetero)aromatic compounds is highly desirable. We have achieved several regioselective C-H trifluoromethylation and related reactions by electrophilic and nucleophilic activation of six-membered heteroaromatic compounds and steric protection of aromatic compounds. These reactions proceed in good to excellent yields, even on a gram scale, with high functional group tolerance, and are applicable to the regioselective trifluoromethylation of drug molecules. In this personal account, the background of the introduction reactions of fluorinated functional groups, our reaction designs to achieve regioselective C-H trifluoromethylation and the related reactions of (hetero)aromatic compounds are explained.

Mn-Mediated Direct Regioselective C-H Trifluoromethylation of Imidazopyridines and Quinoxalines

A simple and highly efficient strategy has been developed for direct C-H trifluoromethylation at C-3 of imidazopyridines and C-8 of quinoxalines with readily available Langlois reagent through KMnO₄/AcOH system. This protocol showed broad substrate scope and afforded moderate-to-excellent yields of both products. It is the first report that the functionalization of quinoxalines occurred regioselectively at the C-8 position of quinoxalines. Mechanistic studies revealed that reaction proceeded via radical pathway.

A straightforward access to trifluoromethylated natural products through late-stage functionalization

Covering: 2011 to 2021Trifluoromethyl (CF3)-modified natural products have attracted increasing interest due to their magical effect in binding affinity and/or drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic properties. However, the chemo and regioselective construction of natural products (NPs) bearing a CF3 group still remains a long-standing challenge due to the complex chemical scaffolds and diverse reactive sites of NPs. In recent years, the development of late-stage functionalization strategies, including metal catalysis, organocatalysis, light-driven reactions, and electrochemical synthesis, has paved the way for direct trifluoromethylation process. In this review, we summarize the applications of these strategies in the late-stage trifluoromethylation of natural products in the past ten years with particular emphasis on the reaction model of each method. We also discuss the challenges, limitations, and future prospects of this approach.

Transition-metal-catalyzed C-H bond activation as a sustainable strategy for the synthesis of fluorinated molecules: an overview

The last decade has witnessed the emergence of innovative synthetic tools for the synthesis of fluorinated molecules. Among these approaches, the transition-metal-catalyzed functionalization of various scaffolds with a panel of fluorinated groups (XRF, X = S, Se, O) offered straightforward access to high value-added compounds. This review will highlight the main advances made in the field with the transition-metal-catalyzed functionalization of C(sp2) and C(sp3) centers with SCF3, SeCF3, or OCH2CF3 groups among others, by C-H bond activation. The scope and limitations of these transformations are discussed in this review.

Visible-light-induced reactions of methylenecyclopropanes (MCPs)

Diverse, visible-light-induced transformations of methylenecyclopropanes (MCPs) have been reported in recent years, attracting significant attention from synthetic chemists. As readily accessible strained molecules, MCPs have sufficient reactivity to selectively generate different target products, through reactions with various radical species upon visible-light irradiation under regulated reaction conditions. These transformations can be classified into three subcategories of reaction pathway, forming ring-opened products, cyclopropane derivatives, and alkynes. These products include pharmaceutical intermediates and polycyclic/heterocyclic compounds that are challenging to obtain using traditional methods. This review summarizes the recent advancements in this field.

A Photoredox/Sulfide Dual Catalysis System That Uses Sulfide Radical Cations to Promote Alkene Chlorotrifluoromethylation

Sulfides and their derivatives are among the most important class of reagent in synthetic chemistry. Despite the importance of such compounds, the use of sulfide radical cations in synthetic chemistry is underdeveloped. To address this issue, herein, we describe alkene chlorotrifluoromethylation reactions promoted by photoredox/sulfide dual catalysis systems, which involves sulfide radical cations generated through the oxidation of sulfides by a photoredox catalyst. The high functional group tolerance of this chemistry was demonstrated using natural products and drug molecules as substrate alkenes.

Trifluoromethylation of Carbonyl and Unactivated Olefin Derivatives by C(sp3 )-C Bond Cleavage

Herein, we report a Cu-mediated trifluoromethylation of carbonyl-type compounds and unactivated olefins enabled by visible-light irradiation via σ C(sp³ )-C bond-functionalization. The reaction is distinguished by its modularity, mild conditions and wide scope-even in the context of late-stage functionalization-thus offering a complementary approach en route to valuable C(sp³ )-CF₃ architectures from easily accessible precursors.

Combined Computational and Experimental Study on [5 + 2] Cycloaddition of 2-Trifluoromethylated Oxidopyrylium Species Leading to 1-(Trifluoromethyl)-8-oxabicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3-en-2-ones

Trifluoromethylation of furfural using the Ruppert-Prakash reagent (TMSCF₃) and subsequent photo-Achmatowicz reaction afforded 6-hydroxy-2-(trifluoromethyl)-2H-pyran-3(6H)-one. After acetylation, the resultant 6-acetoxy-2-(trifluoromethyl)-2H-pyran-3(6H)-one was transformed into various 1-(trifluoromethyl)-8-oxabicyclo[3.2.1]oct-3-en-2-one derivatives through a base-mediated oxidopyrylium [5 + 2] cycloaddition. The reactivity and selectivity of the 2-trifluoromethylated oxidopyrylium species toward [5 + 2] cycloaddition were analyzed using density functional theory calculations.

Fe-Catalyzed Radical Trifluoromethyl-Alkenylation of Alkenes or Alkynes with 2-Amino-1,4-naphthoquinones

The first Fe-catalyzed three-component radical trifluoromethyl-alkenylation of alkenes with 2-amino-1,4-naphthoquinones and CF₃SO₂Na is reported. The developed reaction enables the highly regioselective preparation of a variety of valuable CF₃-substituted 1,4-naphthoquinones in acceptable yields. In the light of the catalytic system, alkynes smoothly afford the corresponding three- or four-component trifluoromethyl-alkenylation products. This protocol features use of easily available and inexpensive reagents, broad substrate scope, and simple reaction conditions.

Visible light mediated C-H trifluoromethylation of (hetero)arenes

A protocol on visible light mediated C-H trifluoromethylation of unactivated (hetero)arenes under blue LED irradiation has been developed. The reaction enables the rapid construction of a range of CF3-containing (hetero)arenes...

Recent advances in transition-metal catalyzed directed C–H functionalization with fluorinated building blocks

This review focuses on the advances in transition-metal catalyzed reactions with fluorinated building blocks via directed C–H bond activation for the construction of diverse organic molecules with an insight into the probable mechanistic pathway.

2,11-Dimethoxyldipyridopurinone as an efficient reducing visible-light photocatalyst for organic transformations

2,11-Dimethoxyldipyridopurinone (DP4) was demonstrated as a potent reducing visible-light PC that can efficiently catalyze three prototypic photoreactions: the redox-neutral, net oxidative and reductive reactions via oxidative-quenching mechanisms.

Copper-Catalyzed Direct Perfluoroalkylation of Heteroarenes

An efficient and broadly applicable process is reported for the copper-catalyzed direct perfluoroalkylation of C-H bonds in heteroarenes with commercially available perfluoroalkyl iodides. This reaction is based on a simple combination of copper(I) iodide and 1,10-phenanthroline enabling the easy reduction of perfluoroalkyl iodides to the corresponding radical species that add to a wide range of heteroarenes including benzofurans, benzothiophenes, (aza)indoles, furans and pyrroles. High levels of regioselectivity were obtained in all cases and the efficiency and robustness of this process was highlighted by the direct perfluoroalkylation of furan-containing peptides.

Arylcyclopropane yet in its infancy: the challenges and recent advances in its functionalization

Electronically unbiased arylcyclopropane functionalization has always been a challenge to organic chemists, and the emergence of donor-acceptor cyclopropanes (DACs) has not only vehemently overshadowed them but still dominates the cyclopropane chemistry. Unlike DACs, the absence of pre-installed functional groups makes it harder for them to activate and participate in a reaction. The field has witnessed considerably slow progress since its inception due to the inherent challenges. There are only a few strategies available to open arylcyclopropanes. Therefore, this work is still in its infancy stage in spite of these materials being one of the earliest known type of cyclopropanes. This review manifests the history, endeavors, and achievements alongside the associated challenges, opportunities, and the need for concerted efforts to accomplish the long-awaited golden age of arylcyclopropanes.

Hydrogenation of fluorinated molecules: an overview

The review aims at providing an overview on the developments made in hydrogenation reactions of molecules having various fluorinated groups (F, CF3, CF2H, CF2Rf). Indeed, the hydrogenation of fluorine-containing molecules is a straightforward and atom-economical way to access challenging (chiral) fluorinated scaffolds. This promising field is still in its infancy and milestones are expected in the coming years. To illustrate that, the review will highlight the major contributions made in that field and will be organized by fluorinated groups.

Z-Selective Pd-catalyzed 2,2,2-trifluoroethylation of acrylamides at room temperature

A straightforward 2,2,2-trifluoroethylation of acrylamides by Pd-catalyzed C-H bond activation was reported by using a fluorinated hypervalent iodine reagent as a coupling partner. At room temperature, this additive-free approach allowed the synthesis of Z-2,2,2-trifluoroethylated acrylamides (19 examples, up to 73% yield) in a stereoselective manner. Under these mild reaction conditions, the methodology turned out to be functional group tolerant and mechanistic studies gave us a better understanding of the transformation.

Radical-Promoted Distal C-H Functionalization of C(sp3 ) Centers with Fluorinated Moieties

Due to their unique properties, fluorinated scaffolds are pivotal compounds in pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and materials science. Over the last years, the development of versatile strategies for the selective synthesis of fluorinated molecules by direct C-H bond functionalization has attracted a lot of attention. In particular, the design of novel transformations based on a radical process was a bottleneck for distal C-H functionalization reactions, offering synthetic solutions for the selective introduction of fluorinated groups. This Minireview highlights the major contributions in this blossoming field. The development of new methodologies for the remote functionalization of aliphatic derivatives with various fluorinated groups based on a 1,5-hydrogen atom transfer process and a β-fragmentation reaction will be showcased and discussed.

Vicinal halo-trifluoromethylation of alkenes

Both trifluoromethyl and halide groups are widely found in medicinally and pharmaceutically important compounds and, moreover, organohalides are commonly used as versatile intermediates in synthetic organic chemistry. Due to their prevalence and easy accessibility, alkene halo-trifluoromethylation provides a convenient way to install these valuable functionalities in complex targets. In this review, we summarize recent advances and achievements in this fast-growing research field. For clarity, the reactions were classified according to the type of halogen atom.

Late-stage difluoromethylation: concepts, developments and perspective

This review describes the conceptual advances that have led to the multiple difluoromethylation processes making use of well-defined CF₂H sources.

Recent trends in dehydroxylative trifluoro-methylation, -methoxylation, -methylthiolation, and -methylselenylation of alcohols

This review studies on the direct dehydroxylative trifluoromethylation, trifluoromethoxylation, trifluoromethylthiolation, and trifluoromethylselenylation of alcohols.

Copper-Catalyzed Trifluoromethylation of Alkoxypyridine Derivatives

The trifluoromethylation of aromatic and heteroaromatic cores has attracted considerable interest in recent years due to its pharmacological relevance. We studied the extension of a simple copper-catalyzed trifluoromethylation protocol to alkoxy-substituted iodopyridines and their benzologs. The trifluoromethylation proceeded smoothly in all cases, and the desired compounds were isolated and characterized. In the trifluoromethylation of 3-iodo-4-methoxyquinoline, we observed a concomitant O-N methyl migration, resulting in the trifluoromethylated quinolone as a product. Overall, the described procedure should facilitate the broader use of copper-catalyzed trifluoromethylation in medicinal chemistry.

An Indirect Strategy for Trifluoromethylation via an Iridium Catalyst: Approach to Generate Isocoumarin Skeletons in Bioactive Molecules

3-Bromo-1,1,1-trifluoroacetone was first disclosed as an effective indirect trifluoromethylation reagent to construct the important 3-trifluoromethyl isocoumarin skeleton. The reaction proceeds through a ligand-promoted, iridium-catalyzed ortho-selective C-H alkylation of benzoic acid and an intermolecular cyclization reaction promoted by silver acetate. A wide range of 3-trifluoromethyl isocoumarins can be easily obtained in moderate to good yields. Importantly, the isocoumarin skeleton can be easily formed in bioactive compounds, highlighting the importance of this reaction.

NHC-catalyzed enantioselective synthesis of β-trifluoromethyl-β-hydroxyamides

The N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC)-catalyzed formal [2 + 2] cycloaddition between α-aroyloxyaldehydes and trifluoroacetophenones, followed by ring opening with an amine or a reducing agent is described. The resulting β-trifluoromethyl-β-hydroxyamide and alcohol products are produced with reasonable diastereocontrol (typically ≈70:30 dr) and excellent enantioselectivity, and they can be isolated in moderate to good yield as a single diastereoisomer.