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Bidhendi AJ, Lampron O, Gosselin FP, Geitmann A. Cell geometry regulates tissue fracture. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8275. [PMID: 38092784 PMCID: PMC10719271 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44075-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
In vascular plants, the epidermal surfaces of leaves and flower petals often display cells with wavy geometries forming intricate jigsaw puzzle patterns. The prevalence and diversity of these complex epidermal patterns, originating from simple polyhedral progenitor cells, suggest adaptive significance. However, despite multiple efforts to explain the evolutionary drivers behind these geometrical features, compelling validation remains elusive. Employing a multidisciplinary approach that integrates microscopic and macroscopic fracture experiments with computational fracture mechanics, we demonstrate that wavy epidermal cells toughen the plants' protective skin. Through a multi-scale framework, we demonstrate that this energy-efficient patterning mechanism is universally applicable for toughening biological and synthetic materials. Our findings reveal a tunable structural-mechanical strategy employed in the microscale design of plants to protect them from deleterious surface fissures while facilitating and strategically directing beneficial ones. These findings hold implications for targeted plant breeding aimed at enhancing resilience in fluctuating environmental conditions. From an engineering perspective, our work highlights the sophisticated design principles the plant kingdom offers to inspire metamaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir J Bidhendi
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec, H9X 3V9, Canada.
- EERS Global Technologies, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Olivier Lampron
- Laboratoire de Mécanique Multi-échelles, Département de génie mécanique, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Frédérick P Gosselin
- Laboratoire de Mécanique Multi-échelles, Département de génie mécanique, École Polytechnique de Montréal, Montreal, Québec, H3C 3A7, Canada
| | - Anja Geitmann
- Department of Plant Science, McGill University, Macdonald Campus, 21111 Lakeshore, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Québec, H9X 3V9, Canada.
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2
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Sonego M, Morgenthal A, Fleck C, Pessan LA. Betholletia excelsa Fruit: Unveiling Toughening Mechanisms and Biomimetic Potential for Advanced Materials. Biomimetics (Basel) 2023; 8:509. [PMID: 37999150 PMCID: PMC10669686 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics8070509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Dry fruits and nutshells are biological capsules of outstanding toughness and strength with biomimetic potential to boost fiber-reinforced composites and protective structures. The strategies behind the Betholletia excelsa fruit mechanical performance were investigated with C-ring and compression tests. This last test was monitored with shearography and simulated with a finite element model. Microtomography and digital and scanning electron microscopy evaluated crack development. The fruit geometry, the preferential orientation of fibers involved in foam-like sclereid cells, promoted anisotropic properties but efficient energy dissipating mechanisms in different directions. For instance, the mesocarp cut parallel to its latitudinal section sustained higher forces (26.0 ± 2.8 kN) and showed higher deformation and slower crack propagation. The main toughening mechanisms are fiber deflection and fiber bridging and pullout, observed when fiber bundles are orthogonal to the crack path. Additionally, the debonding of fiber bundles oriented parallel to the crack path and intercellular cracks through sclereid and fiber cells created a tortuous path.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilia Sonego
- Graduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil;
- Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Itajubá (UNIFEI), Itajubá 37500-903, MG, Brazil
| | - Anneke Morgenthal
- Materials Science and Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany (C.F.)
| | - Claudia Fleck
- Materials Science and Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany (C.F.)
| | - Luiz Antonio Pessan
- Graduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil;
- Department of Materials Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos 13565-905, SP, Brazil
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3
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Wang L, Xu P, Yin H, Yue Y, Kang W, Liu J, Fan Y. Fracture Resistance Biomechanisms of Walnut Shell with High-Strength and Toughening. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2303238. [PMID: 37518855 PMCID: PMC10520628 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202303238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Walnut shell is lightweight material with high-strength and toughening characteristics, but it is different from other nut shells' microstructure with two or three short sclerotic cell layers and long bundle fibers. It is essential to explore the fracture resistance biomechanism of lightweight walnut shell and how to prevent damage of bionic structure. In this study, it is found that the asymmetric mass center and geometric center dissipated impact energy to the whole shell without loading concentration in the loading area. Diaphragma juglandis is a special structure improved walnut shell's toughening. The S-shape gradient porosity/elastic modulus distribution combined with pits on single auxetic sclerotic cells requires higher energy to crack expansion, then decreases its fracture behavior. These fantastic findings inspire to design fracture resistance devices including helmets, armor, automobile anti-collision beams, and re-entry capsule in spacecraft.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Huan Yin
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Yanxian Yue
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Wei Kang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Jinglong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Yubo Fan
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
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4
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Yu A, Zou H, Li P, Yao X, Zhou Z, Gu X, Sun R, Liu A. Genomic characterization of the NAC transcription factors, directed at understanding their functions involved in endocarp lignification of iron walnut ( Juglans sigillata Dode). Front Genet 2023; 14:1168142. [PMID: 37229193 PMCID: PMC10203416 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1168142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The NAC (NAM, ATAF1/2, and CUC2) transcription factors (TF), one of the largest plant-specific gene families, play important roles in the regulation of plant growth and development, stress response and disease resistance. In particular, several NAC TFs have been identified as master regulators of secondary cell wall (SCW) biosynthesis. Iron walnut (Juglans sigillata Dode), an economically important nut and oilseed tree, has been widely planted in the southwest China. The thick and high lignified shell derived endocarp tissues, however, brings troubles in processing processes of products in industry. It is indispensable to dissect the molecular mechanism of thick endocarp formation for further genetic improvement of iron walnut. In the present study, based on genome reference of iron walnut, 117 NAC genes, in total, were identified and characterized in silico, which involves only computational analysis to provide insight into gene function and regulation. We found that the amino acids encoded by these NAC genes varied from 103 to 1,264 in length, and conserved motif numbers ranged from 2 to 10. The JsiNAC genes were unevenly distributed across the genome of 16 chromosomes, and 96 of these genes were identified as segmental duplication genes. Furthermore, 117 JsiNAC genes were divided into 14 subfamilies (A-N) according to the phylogenetic tree based on NAC family members of Arabidopsis thaliana and common walnut (Juglans regia). Furthermore, tissue-specific expression pattern analysis demonstrated that a majority of NAC genes were constitutively expressed in five different tissues (bud, root, fruit, endocarp, and stem xylem), while a total of 19 genes were specifically expressed in endocarp, and most of them also showed high and specific expression levels in the middle and late stages during iron walnut endocarp development. Our result provided a new insight into the gene structure and function of JsiNACs in iron walnut, and identified key candidate JsiNAC genes involved in endocarp development, probably providing mechanistic insight into shell thickness formation across nut species.
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Ionita D, Cristea M, Cosmulescu SF, Predeanu G, Harabagiu V, Samoila P. Thermal and Viscoelastic Responses of Selected Lignocellulosic Wastes: Similarities and Differences. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:polym15092100. [PMID: 37177248 PMCID: PMC10181240 DOI: 10.3390/polym15092100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Woody lignocellulosic biomasses comprise the non-edible parts of fruit trees. In recent years, the exploitation of this biomass has been widening in order to mitigate environmental issues. At the same time, this waste could be transformed into a value-added product (active carbon by pyrolysis, isolation of nanocellulose, oils or proteins). For either valorization path, a complete thermo-mechanical characterization is required. A detailed thermo-mechanical study (TGA, DSC, DMA) was performed on two types of lignocellulosic wastes, with and without kernels: on one side, the walnut shells (WS) and the pistachio shells (PsS) and, in the second category, the apricot seeds (AS), the date seeds (DS), and the plum seeds (PS). The results of the sample-controlled thermal analyses (HiRes TGA) evidenced a better resolution of the degradation steps of WS. Kinetic studies conducted also by conventional TGA (Flynn-Wall-Ozawa) and modulated TGA (MTGA) allowed us to make comparative reasonings concerning the degradation of the investigated biomasses. The DMA results revealed the effect of water traces and oil kernels on relaxation and supported the atypical DSC endotherm emphasized in the freezing temperature domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ionita
- "Petru Poni" Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Aleea Grigore Ghica Voda 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | - Mariana Cristea
- "Petru Poni" Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Aleea Grigore Ghica Voda 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | | | - Georgeta Predeanu
- Research Center for Environmental Protection and Ecofriendly Technologies, University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest, Strada Gheorghe Polizu 1-7, 011061 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Valeria Harabagiu
- "Petru Poni" Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Aleea Grigore Ghica Voda 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania
| | - Petrisor Samoila
- "Petru Poni" Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Aleea Grigore Ghica Voda 41A, 700487 Iasi, Romania
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Schamberger B, Ziege R, Anselme K, Ben Amar M, Bykowski M, Castro APG, Cipitria A, Coles RA, Dimova R, Eder M, Ehrig S, Escudero LM, Evans ME, Fernandes PR, Fratzl P, Geris L, Gierlinger N, Hannezo E, Iglič A, Kirkensgaard JJK, Kollmannsberger P, Kowalewska Ł, Kurniawan NA, Papantoniou I, Pieuchot L, Pires THV, Renner LD, Sageman-Furnas AO, Schröder-Turk GE, Sengupta A, Sharma VR, Tagua A, Tomba C, Trepat X, Waters SL, Yeo EF, Roschger A, Bidan CM, Dunlop JWC. Curvature in Biological Systems: Its Quantification, Emergence, and Implications across the Scales. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2206110. [PMID: 36461812 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202206110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Surface curvature both emerges from, and influences the behavior of, living objects at length scales ranging from cell membranes to single cells to tissues and organs. The relevance of surface curvature in biology is supported by numerous experimental and theoretical investigations in recent years. In this review, first, a brief introduction to the key ideas of surface curvature in the context of biological systems is given and the challenges that arise when measuring surface curvature are discussed. Giving an overview of the emergence of curvature in biological systems, its significance at different length scales becomes apparent. On the other hand, summarizing current findings also shows that both single cells and entire cell sheets, tissues or organisms respond to curvature by modulating their shape and their migration behavior. Finally, the interplay between the distribution of morphogens or micro-organisms and the emergence of curvature across length scales is addressed with examples demonstrating these key mechanistic principles of morphogenesis. Overall, this review highlights that curved interfaces are not merely a passive by-product of the chemical, biological, and mechanical processes but that curvature acts also as a signal that co-determines these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Schamberger
- Department of the Chemistry and Physics of Materials, Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Ricardo Ziege
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Karine Anselme
- IS2M (CNRS - UMR 7361), Université de Haute-Alsace, F-68100, Mulhouse, France
- Université de Strasbourg, F-67081, Strasbourg, France
| | - Martine Ben Amar
- Department of Physics, Laboratoire de Physique de l'Ecole Normale Supérieure, 24 rue Lhomond, 75005, Paris, France
| | - Michał Bykowski
- Department of Plant Anatomy and Cytology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - André P G Castro
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
- ESTS, Instituto Politécnico de Setúbal, 2914-761, Setúbal, Portugal
| | - Amaia Cipitria
- IS2M (CNRS - UMR 7361), Université de Haute-Alsace, F-68100, Mulhouse, France
- Group of Bioengineering in Regeneration and Cancer, Biodonostia Health Research Institute, 20014, San Sebastian, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Rhoslyn A Coles
- Cluster of Excellence, Matters of Activity, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 10178, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rumiana Dimova
- Department of Theory and Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Michaela Eder
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ehrig
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, 13125, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Luis M Escudero
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla and Departamento de Biología Celular, Universidad de Sevilla, 41013, Seville, Spain
- Biomedical Network Research Centre on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), 28031, Madrid, Spain
| | - Myfanwy E Evans
- Institute for Mathematics, University of Potsdam, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Paulo R Fernandes
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Peter Fratzl
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Liesbet Geris
- Biomechanics Research Unit, GIGA In Silico Medicine, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (Boku), 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Edouard Hannezo
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Aleš Iglič
- Laboratory of Physics, Faculty of Electrical engineering, University of Ljubljana, Tržaška 25, SI-1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Jacob J K Kirkensgaard
- Condensed Matter Physics, Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 5, 2100, København Ø, Denmark
- Ingredients and Dairy Technology, Department of Food Science, University of Copenhagen, Rolighedsvej 26, 1958, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Philip Kollmannsberger
- Center for Computational and Theoretical Biology, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Łucja Kowalewska
- Department of Plant Anatomy and Cytology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, 02-096, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Nicholas A Kurniawan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ioannis Papantoniou
- Prometheus Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven, O&N1, Herestraat 49, PB 813, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center, Department of Development and Regeneration, KU Leuven, O&N1, Herestraat 49, PB 813, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Institute of Chemical Engineering Sciences, Foundation for Research and Technology (FORTH), Stadiou Str., 26504, Patras, Greece
| | - Laurent Pieuchot
- IS2M (CNRS - UMR 7361), Université de Haute-Alsace, F-68100, Mulhouse, France
- Université de Strasbourg, F-67081, Strasbourg, France
| | - Tiago H V Pires
- IDMEC, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lars D Renner
- Leibniz Institute of Polymer Research and the Max Bergmann Center of Biomaterials, 01069, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Gerd E Schröder-Turk
- School of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics, Murdoch University, 90 South St, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia
- Department of Materials Physics, Research School of Physics, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2600, Australia
| | - Anupam Sengupta
- Physics of Living Matter, Department of Physics and Materials Science, University of Luxembourg, L-1511, Luxembourg City, Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
| | - Vikas R Sharma
- Department of the Chemistry and Physics of Materials, Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Antonio Tagua
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Sevilla (IBiS), Hospital Universitario Virgen del Rocío/CSIC/Universidad de Sevilla and Departamento de Biología Celular, Universidad de Sevilla, 41013, Seville, Spain
- Biomedical Network Research Centre on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), 28031, Madrid, Spain
| | - Caterina Tomba
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, INSA Lyon, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CPE Lyon, INL, UMR5270, 69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Xavier Trepat
- ICREA at the Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology, 08028, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina (CIBER-BBN), 08028, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sarah L Waters
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, OX2 6GG, Oxford, UK
| | - Edwina F Yeo
- Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, OX2 6GG, Oxford, UK
| | - Andreas Roschger
- Department of the Chemistry and Physics of Materials, Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Cécile M Bidan
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - John W C Dunlop
- Department of the Chemistry and Physics of Materials, Paris-Lodron University of Salzburg, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
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Treado JD, Roddy AB, Théroux-Rancourt G, Zhang L, Ambrose C, Brodersen CR, Shattuck MD, O’Hern CS. Localized growth and remodelling drives spongy mesophyll morphogenesis. J R Soc Interface 2022; 19:20220602. [PMID: 36475391 PMCID: PMC9727661 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The spongy mesophyll is a complex, porous tissue found in plant leaves that enables carbon capture and provides mechanical stability. Unlike many other biological tissues, which remain confluent throughout development, the spongy mesophyll must develop from an initially confluent tissue into a tortuous network of cells with a large proportion of intercellular airspace. How the airspace in the spongy mesophyll develops while the tissue remains mechanically stable is unknown. Here, we use computer simulations of deformable polygons to develop a purely mechanical model for the development of the spongy mesophyll tissue. By stipulating that cell wall growth and remodelling occurs only near void space, our computational model is able to recapitulate spongy mesophyll development observed in Arabidopsis thaliana leaves. We find that robust generation of pore space in the spongy mesophyll requires a balance of cell growth, adhesion, stiffness and tissue pressure to ensure cell networks become porous yet maintain mechanical stability. The success of this mechanical model of morphogenesis suggests that simple physical principles can coordinate and drive the development of complex plant tissues like the spongy mesophyll.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D. Treado
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science and Integrated Graduate Program in Physical and Engineering Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Adam B. Roddy
- Institute of Environment, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Guillaume Théroux-Rancourt
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Department of Integrative Biology and Biodiversity Research, Institute of Botany, 1180 Vienna, Austria
| | - Liyong Zhang
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada S7N 5E2
| | - Chris Ambrose
- Department of Biology, College of Arts and Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada S7N 5E2
| | | | - Mark D. Shattuck
- Department of Physics and Benjamin Levich Institute, City College of New York, NY 10031, USA
| | - Corey S. O’Hern
- Department of Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA,Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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8
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Patil AY, Hegde C, Savanur G, Kanakmood SM, Contractor AM, Shirashyad VB, Chivate RM, Kotturshettar BB, Mathad SN, Patil MB, Soudagar MEM, Fattah IMR. Biomimicking Nature-Inspired Design Structures-An Experimental and Simulation Approach Using Additive Manufacturing. Biomimetics (Basel) 2022; 7:biomimetics7040186. [PMID: 36412714 PMCID: PMC9680522 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics7040186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Whether it is a plant- or animal-based bio-inspiration design, it has always been able to address one or more product/component optimisation issues. Today's scientists or engineers look to nature for an optimal, economically viable, long-term solution. Similarly, a proposal is made in this current work to use seven different bio-inspired structures for automotive impact resistance. All seven of these structures are derived from plant and animal species and are intended to be tested for compressive loading to achieve load-bearing capacity. The work may even cater to optimisation techniques to solve the real-time problem using algorithm-based generative shape designs built using CATIA V6 in unit dimension. The samples were optimised with Rhino 7 software and then simulated with ANSYS workbench. To carry out the comparative study, an experimental work of bioprinting in fused deposition modelling (3D printing) was carried out. The goal is to compare the results across all formats and choose the best-performing concept. The results were obtained for compressive load, flexural load, and fatigue load conditions, particularly the number of life cycles, safety factor, damage tolerance, and bi-axiality indicator. When compared to previous research, the results are in good agreement. Because of their multifunctional properties combining soft and high stiffness and lightweight properties of novel materials, novel materials have many potential applications in the medical, aerospace, and automotive sectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Y. Patil
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
- Correspondence: (A.Y.P.); (I.M.R.F.)
| | - Chandrashekhar Hegde
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | - Guruprasad Savanur
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | | | | | - Vinay B. Shirashyad
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | - Rahul M. Chivate
- School of Mechanical Engineering, KLE Technological University, Hubballi 580031, India
| | | | - Shridhar N. Mathad
- Department of Physics, KLE Institute of Technology, Hubballi 580030, India
| | | | - Manzoore Elahi M. Soudagar
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, School of Technology, Glocal University, Delhi-Yamunotri Marg, Saharanpur 247121, India
- Department of VLSI Microelectronics, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences, Chennai 602105, India
| | - Islam Md Rizwanul Fattah
- Centre for Green Technology (CGT), School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia
- Correspondence: (A.Y.P.); (I.M.R.F.)
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9
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Antreich SJ, Huss JC, Xiao N, Singh A, Gierlinger N. The walnut shell network: 3D visualisation of symplastic and apoplastic transport routes in sclerenchyma tissue. PLANTA 2022; 256:49. [PMID: 35881249 PMCID: PMC9325819 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-022-03960-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
High symplastic connectivity via pits was linked to the lignification of the developing walnut shell. With maturation, this network lessened, whereas apoplastic intercellular space remained and became relevant for shell drying. The shell of the walnut (Juglans regia) sclerifies within several weeks. This fast secondary cell wall thickening and lignification of the shell tissue might need metabolites from the supporting husk tissue. To reveal the transport capacity of the walnut shell tissue and its connection to the husk, we visualised the symplastic and apoplastic transport routes during shell development by serial block face-SEM and 3D reconstruction. We found an extensive network of pit channels connecting the cells within the shell tissue, but even more towards the husk tissue. Each pit channel ended in a pit field, which was occupied by multiple plasmodesmata passing through the middle lamella. During shell development, secondary cell wall formation progressed towards the interior of the cell, leaving active pit channels open. In contrast, pit channels, which had no plasmodesmata connection to a neighbouring cell, got filled by cellulose layers from the inner cell wall lamellae. A comparison with other nut species showed that an extended network during sclerification seemed to be linked to high cell wall lignification and that the connectivity between cells got reduced with maturation. In contrast, intercellular spaces between cells remained unchanged during the entire sclerification process, allowing air and water to flow through the walnut shell tissue when mature. The connectivity between inner tissue and environment was essential during shell drying in the last month of nut development to avoid mould formation. The findings highlight how connectivity and transport work in developing walnut shell tissue and how finally in the mature state these structures influence shell mechanics, permeability, conservation and germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Antreich
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Jessica C Huss
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nannan Xiao
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Adya Singh
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, 1190, Vienna, Austria
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10
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Mineral tessellation in bone and the stenciling principle for extracellular matrix mineralization. J Struct Biol 2021; 214:107823. [PMID: 34915130 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2021.107823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We review here the Stenciling Principle for extracellular matrix mineralization that describes a double-negative process (inhibition of inhibitors) that promotes mineralization in bone and other mineralized tissues, whereas the default condition of inhibition alone prevents mineralization elsewhere in soft connective tissues. The stenciling principle acts across multiple levels from the macroscale (skeleton/dentition vs soft connective tissues), to the microscale (for example, entheses, and the tooth attachment complex where the soft periodontal ligament is situated between mineralized tooth cementum and mineralized alveolar bone), and to the mesoscale (mineral tessellation). It relates to both small-molecule (e.g. pyrophosphate) and protein (e.g. osteopontin) inhibitors of mineralization, and promoters (enzymes, e.g. TNAP, PHEX) that degrade the inhibitors to permit and regulate mineralization. In this process, an organizational motif for bone mineral arises that we call crossfibrillar mineral tessellation where mineral formations - called tesselles - geometrically approximate prolate ellipsoids and traverse multiple collagen fibrils (laterally). Tesselle growth is directed by the structural anisotropy of collagen, being spatially restrained in the shorter transverse tesselle dimensions (averaging 1.6 × 0.8 × 0.8 μm, aspect ratio 2, length range 1.5-2.5 μm). Temporo-spatially, the tesselles abut in 3D (close ellipsoid packing) to fill the volume of lamellar bone extracellular matrix. Poorly mineralized interfacial gaps between adjacent tesselles remain discernable even in mature lamellar bone. Tessellation of a same, small basic unit to form larger structural assemblies results in numerous 3D interfaces, allows dissipation of critical stresses, and enables fail-safe cyclic deformations. Incomplete tessellation in osteomalacia/odontomalacia may explain why soft osteomalacic bones buckle and deform under loading.
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11
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Felhofer M, Mayr K, Lütz-Meindl U, Gierlinger N. Raman imaging of Micrasterias: new insights into shape formation. PROTOPLASMA 2021; 258:1323-1334. [PMID: 34292402 PMCID: PMC8523415 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-021-01685-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The algae Micrasterias with its star-shaped cell pattern is a perfect unicellular model system to study morphogenesis. How the indentations are formed in the primary cell wall at exactly defined areas puzzled scientists for decades, and they searched for chemical differences in the primary wall of the extending tips compared to the resting indents. We now tackled the question by Raman imaging and scanned in situ Micrasterias cells at different stages of development. Thousands of Raman spectra were acquired from the mother cell and the developing semicell to calculate chemical images based on an algorithm finding the most different Raman spectra. Each of those spectra had characteristic Raman bands, which were assigned to molecular vibrations of BaSO4, proteins, lipids, starch, and plant cell wall carbohydrates. Visualizing the cell wall carbohydrates revealed a cell wall thickening at the indentations of the primary cell wall of the growing semicell and uniplanar orientation of the cellulose microfibrils to the cell surface in the secondary cell wall. Crystalline cellulose dominated in the secondary cell wall spectra, while in the primary cell wall spectra, also xyloglucan and pectin were reflected. Spectral differences between the indent and tip region of the primary cell wall were scarce, but a spectral mixing approach pointed to more cellulose fibrils deposited in the indent region. Therefore, we suggest that cell wall thickening together with a denser network of cellulose microfibrils stiffens the cell wall at the indent and induces different cell wall extensibility to shape the lobes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Felhofer
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Konrad Mayr
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ursula Lütz-Meindl
- Department of Biosciences, University of Salzburg, 5020, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190, Vienna, Austria.
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12
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Xiao N, Felhofer M, Antreich SJ, Huss JC, Mayer K, Singh A, Bock P, Gierlinger N. Twist and lock: nutshell structures for high strength and energy absorption. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2021; 8:210399. [PMID: 34430046 PMCID: PMC8355673 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.210399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Nutshells achieve remarkable properties by optimizing structure and chemistry at different hierarchical levels. Probing nutshells from the cellular down to the nano- and molecular level by microchemical and nanomechanical imaging techniques reveals insights into nature's packing concepts. In walnut and pistachio shells, carbohydrate and lignin polymers assemble to form thick-walled puzzle cells, which interlock three-dimensionally and show high tissue strength. Pistachio additionally achieves high-energy absorption by numerous lobes interconnected via ball-joint-like structures. By contrast, the three times more lignified walnut shells show brittle LEGO-brick failure, often along the numerous pit channels. In both species, cell walls (CWs) show distinct lamellar structures. These lamellae involve a helicoidal arrangement of cellulose macrofibrils as a recurring motif. Between the two nutshell species, these lamellae show differences in thickness and pitch angle, which can explain the different mechanical properties on the nanolevel. Our in-depth study of the two nutshell tissues highlights the role of cell form and their interlocking as well as plant CW composition and structure for mechanical protection. Understanding these plant shell concepts might inspire biomimetic material developments as well as using walnut and pistachio shell waste as sustainable raw material in future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nannan Xiao
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Felhofer
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sebastian J. Antreich
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jessica C. Huss
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Konrad Mayer
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Adya Singh
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Bock
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), 1190 Vienna, Austria
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13
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Antreich SJ, Xiao N, Huss JC, Gierlinger N. A belt for the cell: cellulosic wall thickenings and their role in morphogenesis of the 3D puzzle cells in walnut shells. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:4744-4756. [PMID: 33963747 PMCID: PMC8219037 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Walnut (Juglans regia) kernels are protected by a tough shell consisting of polylobate sclereids that interlock into a 3D puzzle. The shape transformations from isodiametric to lobed cells is well documented for 2D pavement cells, but not for 3D puzzle sclereids. Here, we study the morphogenesis of these cells by using a combination of different imaging techniques. Serial face-microtomy enabled us to reconstruct tissue growth of whole walnut fruits in 3D, and serial block face-scanning electron microscopy exposed cell shapes and their transformation in 3D during shell tissue development. In combination with Raman and fluorescence microscopy, we revealed multiple loops of cellulosic thickenings in cell walls, acting as stiff restrictions during cell growth and leading to the lobed cell shape. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the 3D shape transformation of polylobate sclereids and the role of pectin and cellulose within this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Antreich
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nannan Xiao
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jessica C Huss
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of Nanobiotechnology, Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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14
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Abstract
This article comments on: Antreich SJ, Xiao N, Huss JC, Gierlinger N. 2021. A belt for the cell: cellulosic wall thickenings and their role in morphogenesis of the 3D puzzle cells in walnut shells. Journal of Experimental Botany 72,4744–4756.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivka Elbaum
- The Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
- Correspondence:
| | - Michael Elbaum
- Department of Chemical and Biological Physics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
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15
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Huss JC, Gierlinger N. Functional packaging of seeds. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 230:2154-2163. [PMID: 33629369 PMCID: PMC8252473 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The encapsulation of seeds in hard coats and fruit walls (pericarp layers) fulfils protective and dispersal functions in many plant families. In angiosperms, packaging structures possess a remarkable range of different morphologies and functionalities, as illustrated by thermo and hygro-responsive seed pods and appendages, as well as mechanically strong and water-impermeable shells. Key to these different functionalities are characteristic structural arrangements and chemical modifications of the underlying sclerenchymatous tissues. Although many ecological aspects of hard seed encapsulation have been well documented, a detailed understanding of the relationship between tissue structure and function only recently started to emerge, especially in the context of environmentally driven fruit opening and seed dispersal (responsive encapsulations) and the outstanding durability of some seed coats and indehiscent fruits (static encapsulations). In this review, we focus on the tissue properties of these two systems, with particular consideration of water interactions, mechanical resistance, and force generation. Common principles, as well as unique adaptations, are discussed in different plant species. Understanding how plants integrate a broad range of functions and properties for seed protection during storage and dispersal plays a central role for seed conservation, population dynamics, and plant-based material developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica C. Huss
- Department of NanobiotechnologyInstitute of BiophysicsUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) ViennaMuthgasse 11/IIVienna1900Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of NanobiotechnologyInstitute of BiophysicsUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOKU) ViennaMuthgasse 11/IIVienna1900Austria
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16
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Sonego M, Madia M, Eder M, Fleck C, Pessan LA. Microstructural features influencing the mechanical performance of the Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) mesocarp. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2021; 116:104306. [PMID: 33513460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2020.104306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 12/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa) fruits are capable of resisting high mechanical forces when released from trees as tall as 50 m, as well as during animal dispersal by sharp-teethed rodents. Thick mesocarp plays a crucial part in seed protection. We investigated the role of microstructure and how sclereids, fibers, and voids affect nutshell performance using compression, tensile and fracture toughness tests. Fractured specimens were analyzed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and microtomography (microCT). Mesocarp showed high deformability (strain at max. stress of ~30%) under compression loading, a critical tensile strength of ~24.9 MPa, a Weibull modulus of ~3, and an elastic modulus of ~2 GPa in the tensile test. The fracture toughness, estimated through the work of fracture of SENB tests, reached ~2 kJ/m2. The thick and strong walls of mesocarp cells, with a weaker boundary between them (compound middle lamella), promote a tortuous intercellular crack path. Several toughening mechanisms, such as crack deflection, breaking of fiber bundles, fiber pullout and bridging as well as crack branching, occur depending on how fiber bundles and voids are oriented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marilia Sonego
- Graduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, 13.565-905, SP, Brazil.
| | - Mauro Madia
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12205, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michaela Eder
- Max-Planck-Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Department of Biomaterials, Am Mühlenberg 1, Potsdam, 14476, Germany
| | - Claudia Fleck
- Materials Science & Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, 10623, Germany
| | - Luiz A Pessan
- Graduate Program in Materials Science and Engineering (PPGCEM), Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCar), São Carlos, 13.565-905, SP, Brazil; Department of Materials Engineering, Federal University of São Carlos, via Washington Luiz, Km 235, 13565-905 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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17
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Huss JC, Antreich SJ, Bachmayr J, Xiao N, Eder M, Konnerth J, Gierlinger N. Topological Interlocking and Geometric Stiffening as Complementary Strategies for Strong Plant Shells. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e2004519. [PMID: 33079407 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202004519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Many organisms encapsulate their embryos in hard, protective shells. While birds and reptiles largely rely on mineralized shells, plants often develop highly robust lignocellulosic shells. Despite the abundance of hard plant shells, particularly nutshells, it remains unclear which fundamental properties drive their mechanical stability. This multiscale analysis of six prominent (nut)shells (pine, pistachio, walnut, pecan, hazelnut, and macadamia) reveals geometric and structural strengthening mechanisms on the cellular and macroscopic length scales. The strongest tissues, found in walnut and pistachio, exploit the topological interlocking of 3D-puzzle cells and thereby outperform the fiber-reinforced structure of macadamia under tensile and compressive loading. On the macroscopic scale, strengthening occurs via an increased shell thickness, spherical shape, small size, and a lack of extended sutures. These functional interrelations suggest that simple geometric modifications are a powerful and resource-efficient strategy for plants to enhance the fracture resistance of entire shells and their tissues. Understanding the interplay between structure, geometry, and mechanics in hard plant shells provides new perspectives on the evolutionary diversification of hard seed coats, as well as insights for nutshell-based material applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica C Huss
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Vienna, 1190, Austria
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam-Golm, 14476, Germany
| | - Sebastian J Antreich
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Jakob Bachmayr
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Nannan Xiao
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Michaela Eder
- Department of Biomaterials, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam-Golm, 14476, Germany
| | - Johannes Konnerth
- Institute of Wood Technology and Renewable Materials, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Tulln an der Donau, 3430, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Institute of Biophysics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Vienna, 1190, Austria
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18
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Xiao N, Bock P, Antreich SJ, Staedler YM, Schönenberger J, Gierlinger N. From the Soft to the Hard: Changes in Microchemistry During Cell Wall Maturation of Walnut Shells. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:466. [PMID: 32431720 PMCID: PMC7216782 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The walnut shell is a hard and protective layer that provides an essential barrier between the seed and its environment. The shell is based on only one unit cell type: the polylobate sclerenchyma cell. For a better understanding of the interlocked walnut shell tissue, we investigate the structural and compositional changes during the development of the shell from the soft to the hard state. Structural changes at the macro level are explored by X-ray tomography and on the cell and cell wall level various microscopic techniques are applied. Walnut shell development takes place beneath the outer green husk, which protects and delivers components during the development of the walnut. The cells toward this outer green husk have the thickest and most lignified cell walls. With maturation secondary cell wall thickening takes place and the amount of all cell wall components (cellulose, hemicelluloses and especially lignin) is increased as revealed by FTIR microscopy. Focusing on the cell wall level, Raman imaging showed that lignin is deposited first into the pectin network between the cells and cell corners, at the very beginning of secondary cell wall formation. Furthermore, Raman imaging of fluorescence visualized numerous pits as a network of channels, connecting all the interlocked polylobate walnut shells. In the final mature stage, fluorescence increased throughout the cell wall and a fluorescent layer was detected toward the lumen in the inner part. This accumulation of aromatic components is reminiscent of heartwood formation of trees and is suggested to improve protection properties of the mature walnut shell. Understanding the walnut shell and its development will inspire biomimetic material design and packaging concepts, but is also important for waste valorization, considering that walnuts are the most widespread tree nuts in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nannan Xiao
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Peter Bock
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sebastian J. Antreich
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Yannick Marc Staedler
- Division of Structural and Functional Botany, Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jürg Schönenberger
- Division of Structural and Functional Botany, Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
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