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Wang L, Xu P, Yin H, Yue Y, Kang W, Liu J, Fan Y. Fracture Resistance Biomechanisms of Walnut Shell with High-Strength and Toughening. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2023; 10:e2303238. [PMID: 37518855 PMCID: PMC10520628 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202303238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Walnut shell is lightweight material with high-strength and toughening characteristics, but it is different from other nut shells' microstructure with two or three short sclerotic cell layers and long bundle fibers. It is essential to explore the fracture resistance biomechanism of lightweight walnut shell and how to prevent damage of bionic structure. In this study, it is found that the asymmetric mass center and geometric center dissipated impact energy to the whole shell without loading concentration in the loading area. Diaphragma juglandis is a special structure improved walnut shell's toughening. The S-shape gradient porosity/elastic modulus distribution combined with pits on single auxetic sclerotic cells requires higher energy to crack expansion, then decreases its fracture behavior. These fantastic findings inspire to design fracture resistance devices including helmets, armor, automobile anti-collision beams, and re-entry capsule in spacecraft.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lizhen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Peng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Huan Yin
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Yanxian Yue
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Wei Kang
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Jinglong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
| | - Yubo Fan
- Key Laboratory of Biomechanics and Mechanobiology (Beihang University), Ministry of EducationBeijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical EngineeringSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSchool of Engineering MedicineBeihang UniversityBeijing100083China
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Bryant C, Fuenzalida TI, Zavafer A, Nguyen HT, Brothers N, Harris RJ, Beckett HAA, Holmlund HI, Binks O, Ball MC. Foliar water uptake via cork warts in mangroves of the Sonneratia genus. Plant Cell Environ 2021; 44:2925-2937. [PMID: 34118083 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Revised: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Foliar water uptake (FWU) occurs in plants of diverse ecosystems; however, the diversity of pathways and their associated FWU kinetics remain poorly resolved. We characterized a novel FWU pathway in two mangrove species of the Sonneratia genus, S. alba and S. caseolaris. Further, we assessed the influence of leaf wetting duration, wet-dry seasonality and leaf dehydration on leaf conductance to surface water (Ksurf ). The symplastic tracer dye, disodium fluorescein, revealed living cells subtending and encircling leaf epidermal structures known as cork warts as a pathway of FWU entry into the leaf. Rehydration kinetics experiments revealed a novel mode of FWU, with slow and steady rates of water uptake persistent over a duration of 12 hr. Ksurf increased with longer durations of leaf wetting and was greater in leaves with more negative water potentials at the initiation of leaf wetting. Ksurf declined by 68% between wet and dry seasons. Our results suggest that FWU via cork warts in Sonneratia sp. may be rate limited and under active regulation. We conclude that FWU pathways in halophytes may require ion exclusion to avoid uptake of salt when inundated, paralleling the capacity of halophyte roots for ion selectivity during water acquisition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callum Bryant
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Tomas I Fuenzalida
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Alonso Zavafer
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Hoa T Nguyen
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
- Vietnam National University of Agriculture, Trau Quy, Gia Lam, Ha Noi, Vietnam
| | - Nigel Brothers
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Rosalie J Harris
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Holly A A Beckett
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Helen I Holmlund
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
- Pepperdine University, Natural Science Division, Malibu, CA, 90263, USA
| | - Oliver Binks
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Marilyn C Ball
- Plant Science Division, Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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George N, Antony A, Ramachandran T, Hamed F, Kamal-Eldin A. Microscopic Investigationsof Silicification and Lignification Suggest Their Coexistence in Tracheary Phytoliths in Date Fruits ( Phoenix dactylifera L.). Front Plant Sci 2020; 11:977. [PMID: 32733510 PMCID: PMC7359715 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.00977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Date fruits are special representative of hard fruits and one of the richest sources of dietary silica and edible lignin, which are believed to have several health benefits. In this study, we used optical and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to investigate the presence of associations between silicification and lignification in date fruits (Phoenix dactylifera, L.). Phloroglucinol staining was employed to observe lignification in date fruits, while silicification was studied by SEM of whole fruits and their acid digesta. This work revealed the presence of heterogeneity and complexity in the silica phytoliths and the lignified structures in date fruits. It was found that lignin exists independently of silica in the secondary cell walls of parenchymal and sclereid cells and that silica exists independently of lignin in the spheroid phytoliths that surround the sclereid cells. Interestingly, a small proportion of lignin and silica seemed to co-exist as partners in the spiral coils of the tracheid phytoliths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navomy George
- Department of Food, Nutrition & Health, College of Food & Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Asha Antony
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Food & Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Tholkappiyan Ramachandran
- Department of Physics, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Fathalla Hamed
- Department of Physics, College of Science, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Afaf Kamal-Eldin
- Department of Food, Nutrition & Health, College of Food & Agriculture, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates
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Lehnebach R, Alméras T, Clair B. How does bark contribution to postural control change during tree ontogeny? A study of six Amazonian tree species. J Exp Bot 2020; 71:2641-2649. [PMID: 32052058 PMCID: PMC7210755 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Recent works revealed that bark is able to produce mechanical stress to control the orientation of young tilted stems. Here we report how the potential performance of this function changes with stem size in six Amazonian species with contrasted bark anatomy. The potential performance of the mechanism depends both on the magnitude of bark stress and the relative thickness of the bark. We measured bark longitudinal residual strain and density, and the allometric relationship between bark thickness and stem radius over a gradient of tree sizes. Constant tensile stress was found in species that rely on bark for the control of stem orientation in young stages. Other species had increasing compressive stress, associated with increasing density attributed to the development of sclereids. Compressive stress was also associated with low relative bark thickness. The relative thickness of bark decreased with size in all species, suggesting that a reorientation mechanism based on bark progressively performs less well as the tree grows. However, greater relative thickness was observed in species with more tensile stress, thereby evidencing that this reduction in performance is mitigated in species that rely on bark for reorientation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Lehnebach
- LMGC, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
- UGent-Woodlab, Laboratory of Wood Technology, Department of Environment, Gent University, Gent, Belgium
| | | | - Bruno Clair
- LMGC, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
- CNRS, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane (EcoFoG), AgroParisTech, CIRAD, INRA, Université des Antilles, Université de Guyane, Campus agronomique, Kourou cedex, France
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Antreich SJ, Xiao N, Huss JC, Horbelt N, Eder M, Weinkamer R, Gierlinger N. The Puzzle of the Walnut Shell: A Novel Cell Type with Interlocked Packing. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2019; 6:1900644. [PMID: 31453070 PMCID: PMC6702760 DOI: 10.1002/advs.201900644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The outer protective shells of nuts can have remarkable toughness and strength, which are typically achieved by a layered arrangement of sclerenchyma cells and fibers with a polygonal form. Here, the tissue structure of walnut shells is analyzed in depth, revealing that the shells consist of a single, never reported cell type: the polylobate sclereid cells. These irregularly lobed cells with concave and convex parts are on average interlocked with 14 neighboring cells. The result is an intricate arrangement that cannot be disassembled when conceived as a 3D puzzle. Mechanical testing reveals a significantly higher ultimate tensile strength of the interlocked walnut cell tissue compared to the sclerenchyma tissue of a pine seed coat lacking the lobed cell structure. The higher strength value of the walnut shell is explained by the observation that the crack cannot simply detach intact cells but has to cut through the lobes due to the interlocking. Understanding the identified nutshell structure and its development will inspire biomimetic material design and packaging concepts. Furthermore, these unique unit cells might be of special interest for utilizing nutshells in terms of food waste valorization, considering that walnuts are the most widespread tree nuts in the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J. Antreich
- Department of NanobiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU)1190ViennaAustria
| | - Nannan Xiao
- Department of NanobiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU)1190ViennaAustria
| | - Jessica C. Huss
- Department of NanobiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU)1190ViennaAustria
- Department of BiomaterialsMax‐Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Potsdam‐Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Nils Horbelt
- Department of BiomaterialsMax‐Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Potsdam‐Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Michaela Eder
- Department of BiomaterialsMax‐Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Potsdam‐Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Richard Weinkamer
- Department of BiomaterialsMax‐Planck Institute of Colloids and InterfacesScience Park Potsdam‐Golm14424PotsdamGermany
| | - Notburga Gierlinger
- Department of NanobiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU)1190ViennaAustria
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Benedict JC. A new technique to prepare hard fruits and seeds for anatomical studies. Appl Plant Sci 2015; 3:apps1500075. [PMID: 26504684 PMCID: PMC4610315 DOI: 10.3732/apps.1500075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY A novel preparation technique was developed to examine fruits and seeds of plants with exceptionally hard or brittle tissues that are very difficult to prepare using standard histological techniques. METHODS AND RESULTS The method introduced here was modified from a technique employed on fossil material and has been adapted for use on fruits and seeds of extant plants. A variety of fruits and seeds have been prepared with great success, and the technique will be useful for any excessively hard fruits or seeds that are not able to be prepared using traditional embedding or sectioning methods. CONCLUSIONS When compared to existing techniques for obtaining anatomical features of fruits and seeds, the protocol described here has the potential to create high-quality thin sections of materials that are not able to be sectioned using traditional histological techniques, which can be produced quickly and without the need for harmful chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C. Benedict
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Michigan, 2534 CC Little Building, 1100 North University Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-1005 USA
- Author for correspondence:
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Horbens M, Feldner A, Höfer M, Neinhuis C. Ontogenetic tissue modification in Malus fruit peduncles: the role of sclereids. Ann Bot 2014; 113:105-118. [PMID: 24287811 PMCID: PMC3864733 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Apple (Malus) fruit peduncles are highly modified stems with limited secondary growth because fruit ripening lasts only one season. They must reliably connect rather heavy fruits to the branch and cope with increasing fruit weight, which induces dynamic stresses under oscillating wind loads. This study focuses on tissue modification of these small, exposed structures during fruit development. METHODS A combination of microscopic, static and dynamic mechanical tests, as well as Raman spectroscopy, was used to study structure-function relationships in peduncles of one cultivar and 12 wild species, representatively chosen from all sections of the genus Malus. Tissue differentiation and ontogenetic changes in mechanical properties of Malus peduncles were observed throughout one growing season and after successive removal of tissues. KEY RESULTS Unlike in regular stems, the vascular cambium produces mainly phloem during secondary growth. Hence, in addition to a reduced xylem, all species developed a centrally arranged sclerenchyma ring composed of fibres and brachysclereids. Based on differences in cell-wall thickness, and proportions and arrangement of sclereids, two types of peduncle construction could be distinguished. Fibres provide an increased maximum tensile strength and contribute most to the overall axial rigidity of the peduncles. Sclereids contribute insignificantly to peduncle strength; however, despite being shown to have a lower elastic modulus than fibres, they are the most effective tissue in stiffening peduncles against bending. CONCLUSIONS The experimental data revealed that sclereids originating from cortical parenchyma act as 'accessory' cells to enhance proportions of sclerenchyma during secondary growth in peduncles. The mechanism can be interpreted as an adaptation to continuously increasing fruit loads. Under oscillating longitudinal stresses, sclereids may be regarded as regulating elements between maintenance of stiffness and viscous damping, the latter property being attributed to the cortical parenchyma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Horbens
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, D-01217 Dresden, Germany
| | - Alexander Feldner
- Institute of Plant and Wood Chemistry, Technische Universität Dresden, Pienner Strasse 19, D-01737 Tharandt, Germany
| | - Monika Höfer
- Julius Kühn-Institute, Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Breeding Research on Horticultural and Fruit Crops, Pillnitzer Platz 3a, D-01326 Dresden, Germany
| | - Christoph Neinhuis
- Institute of Botany, Technische Universität Dresden, Zellescher Weg 20b, D-01217 Dresden, Germany
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