Aged Breast Extracellular Matrix Drives Mammary Epithelial Cells to an Invasive and Cancer-Like Phenotype

Transcriptome-wide analysis reveals potential roles of CFD and ANGPTL4 in fibroblasts regulating B cell lineage for extracellular matrix-driven clustering and novel avenues for immunotherapy in breast cancer

BACKGROUND

The remodeling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a pivotal role in tumor progression and drug resistance. However, the compositional patterns of ECM in breast cancer and their underlying biological functions remain elusive.

METHODS

Transcriptome and genome data of breast cancer patients from TCGA database was downloaded. Patients were classified into different clusters by using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) based on signatures of ECM components and regulators. Weighted Gene Co-expression Network Analysis (WGCNA) was used to identify core genes related to ECM clusters. Additional 10 independent public cohorts including Metabric, SCAN_B, GSE12276, GSE16446, GSE19615, GSE20685, GSE21653, GSE58644, GSE58812, and GSE88770 were collected to construct Training or Testing cohort, following machine learning calculating ECM correlated index (ECI) for survival analysis. Pathway enrichment and correlation analysis were used to explore the relationship among ECM clusters, ECI and TME. Single-cell transcriptome data from GSE161529 was processed for uncovering the differences among ECM clusters.

RESULTS

Using NMF, we identified three ECM clusters in the TCGA database: C1 (Neuron), C2 (ECM), and C3 (Immune). Subsequently, WGCNA was employed to pinpoint cluster-specific genes and develop a prognostic model. This model demonstrated robust predictive power for breast cancer patient survival in both the Training cohort (n = 5,392, AUC = 0.861) and the Testing cohort (n = 1,344, AUC = 0.711). Upon analyzing the tumor microenvironment (TME), we discovered that fibroblasts and B cell lineage were the core cell types associated with the ECM cluster phenotypes. Single-cell RNA sequencing data further revealed that angiopoietin like 4 (ANGPTL4)+ fibroblasts were specifically linked to the C2 phenotype, while complement factor D (CFD)+ fibroblasts characterized the other ECM clusters. CellChat analysis indicated that ANGPTL4+ and CFD+ fibroblasts regulate B cell lineage via distinct signaling pathways. Additionally, analysis using the Kaplan-Meier Plotter website showed that CFD was favorable for immunotherapy response, whereas ANGPTL4 negatively impacted the outcomes of cancer patients receiving immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

We identified distinct ECM clusters in breast cancer patients, irrespective of molecular subtypes. Additionally, we constructed an effective prognostic model based on these ECM clusters and recognized ANGPTL4+ and CFD+ fibroblasts as potential biomarkers for immunotherapy in breast cancer.

Engineered Age-Mimetic Breast Cancer Models Reveal Differential Drug Responses in Young and Aged Microenvironments

Aging is one of the most significant risk factors for breast cancer. With the growing interest in the alterations of the aging breast tissue microenvironment, it is identified that aging is related to tumorigenesis, invasion, and drug resistance. However, current pre-clinical disease models often neglect the impact of aging and sometimes result in worse clinical outcomes. In this study, aged animal-generated materials are utilized to create and validate a novel age-mimetic breast cancer model that generates an aging microenvironment for cells and alters cells toward a more invasive phenotype found in the aged environment. Furthermore, the age-mimetic models are utilized for 3D breast cancer invasion assessment and high-throughput screening of over 700 drugs in the FDA-approved drug library. 36 potential effective drug targets as well as 34 potential drug targets with different drug responses in different age groups are identified, demonstrating the potential of this age-mimetic breast cancer model for further in-depth breast cancer studies and drug development.

Recent advances in extracellular matrix manipulation for kidney organoid research

The kidney plays a crucial role in maintaining the body's microenvironment homeostasis. However, current treatment options and therapeutic agents for chronic kidney disease (CKD) are limited. Fortunately, the advent of kidney organoids has introduced a novel in vitro model for studying kidney diseases and drug screening. Despite significant efforts has been leveraged to mimic the spatial-temporal dynamics of fetal renal development in various types of kidney organoids, there is still a discrepancy in cell types and maturity compared to native kidney tissue. The extracellular matrix (ECM) plays a crucial role in regulating cellular signaling, which ultimately affects cell fate decision. As a result, ECM can refine the microenvironment of organoids, promoting their efficient differentiation and maturation. This review examines the existing techniques for culturing kidney organoids, evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of various types of kidney organoids, and assesses the advancements and limitations associated with the utilization of the ECM in kidney organoid culture. Additionally, it presents a discussion on constructing specific physiological and pathological microenvironments using decellularized extracellular matrix during certain developmental stages or disease occurrences, aiding the development of kidney organoids and disease models.

Engineered Age-Mimetic Breast Cancer Models Reveal Differential Drug Responses in Young and Aged Microenvironments

Aging is one of the most significant risk factors for breast cancer. With the growing interests in the alterations of the aging breast tissue microenvironment, it has been identified that aging is related to tumorigenesis, invasion, and drug resistance. However, current pre-clinical disease models often neglect the impact of aging and sometimes result in worse clinical outcomes. In this study, we utilized aged animal-generated materials to create and validate a novel age-mimetic breast cancer model that generates an aging microenvironment for cells and alters cells towards a phenotype found in the aged environment. Furthermore, we utilized the age-mimetic models for 3D breast cancer invasion assessment and high-throughput screening of over 700 drugs in the FDA-approved drug library. We identified 36 potential effective drug targets and 34 potential drug targets with different drug responses in different age groups, demonstrating the potential of this age-mimetic breast cancer model for further in-depth breast cancer studies and drug development.

Aging affects regrowth of stealthperitoneal dissemination of advanced ovarian cancer: a multicenter retrospective cohort study

Ovarian cancer (OvCa) is one of the most lethal gynecological malignancies, and most patients are diagnosed at advanced stage with peritoneal dissemination. Although age at diagnosis is considered an independent prognostic factor, its impact on peritoneal recurrence after combined cytoreductive surgery and chemotherapy is not clear. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of aging on peritoneal recurrence from stealth dissemination and gain insight of the pathophysiology of OvCa in elderly patients. A total of 243 patients with pT2b-pT3 epithelial ovarian who achieved complete surgery, no-residual tumor at first surgery, were selected to be analyzed the risk of peritoneal seeding and recurrence. We found that age over 65 years was independently associated with an increased risk of peritoneum-specific (PS) recurrence (. Furthermore, pT3 stages and positive ascites cytology also worsen the PS-relapse-free survival. Collectively, our findings suggest that age, especially over 65 years, predicts reduced peritoneum-specific tumor recurrence in patients with advanced ovarian cancer after complete cytoreduction surgery, particularly those with pT3 tumors and positive ascites cytology.

Human breast tissue engineering in health and disease

The human mammary gland represents a highly organized and dynamic tissue, uniquely characterized by postnatal developmental cycles. During pregnancy and lactation, it undergoes extensive hormone-stimulated architectural remodeling, culminating in the formation of specialized structures for milk production to nourish offspring. Moreover, it carries significant health implications, due to the high prevalence of breast cancer. Therefore, gaining insight into the unique biology of the mammary gland can have implications for managing breast cancer and promoting the well-being of both women and infants. Tissue engineering techniques hold promise to narrow the translational gap between existing breast models and clinical outcomes. Here, we provide an overview of the current landscape of breast tissue engineering, outline key requirements, and the challenges to overcome for achieving more predictive human breast models. We propose methods to validate breast function and highlight preclinical applications for improved understanding and targeting of breast cancer. Beyond mammary gland physiology, representative human breast models can offer new insight into stem cell biology and developmental processes that could extend to other organs and clinical contexts.

Decellularized extracellular matrix-based bioengineered 3D breast cancer scaffolds for personalized therapy and drug screening

Breast cancer (BC) is the second deadliest cancer after lung cancer. Similar to all cancers, it is also driven by a 3D microenvironment. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is an essential component of the 3D tumor micro-environment, wherein it functions as a scaffold for cells and provides metabolic support. BC is characterized by alterations in the ECM. Various studies have attempted to mimic BC-specific ECMs using artificial materials, such as Matrigel. Nevertheless, research has proven that naturally derived decellularized extracellular matrices (dECMs) are superior in providing the essential in vivo-like cues needed to mimic a cancer-like environment. Developing in vitro 3-D BC models is not straightforward and requires extensive analysis of the data established by researchers. For the benefit of researchers, in this review, we have tried to highlight all developmental studies that have been conducted by various scientists so far. The analysis of the conclusions drawn from these studies is also discussed. The advantages and drawbacks of the decellularization methods employed for generating BC scaffolds will be covered, and the review will shed light on how dECM scaffolds help develop a BC environment. The later stages of the article will also focus on immunogenicity issues arising from decellularization and the origin of the tissue. Finally, this review will also discuss the biofabrication of matrices, which is the core part of the bioengineering process.

Breast Collagen Organization: Variance by Patient Age and Breast Quadrant

Breast density is an important marker for increased breast cancer risk, but the ideal marker would be more specific. Breast compactness, which reflects the focal density of collagen fibers, parallels breast cancer occurrence being highest in the upper outer quadrants of the breast. In addition, it peaks during the same time frame as breast cancer in women. Improved biomarkers for breast cancer risk could pave the way for patient-specific preventive strategies.

Mammary tissue-derived extracellular matrix hydrogels reveal the role of irradiation in driving a pro-tumor and immunosuppressive microenvironment

Radiation therapy (RT) is essential for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) treatment. However, patients with TNBC continue to experience recurrence after RT. The role of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of irradiated breast tissue in tumor recurrence is still unknown. In this study, we evaluated the structure, molecular composition, and mechanical properties of irradiated murine mammary fat pads (MFPs) and developed ECM hydrogels from decellularized tissues (dECM) to assess the effects of RT-induced ECM changes on breast cancer cell behavior. Irradiated MFPs were characterized by increased ECM deposition and fiber density compared to unirradiated controls, which may provide a platform for cell invasion and proliferation. ECM component changes in collagens I, IV, and VI, and fibronectin were observed following irradiation in both MFPs and dECM hydrogels. Encapsulated TNBC cell proliferation and invasive capacity was enhanced in irradiated dECM hydrogels. In addition, TNBC cells co-cultured with macrophages in irradiated dECM hydrogels induced M2 macrophage polarization and exhibited further increases in proliferation. Our study establishes that the ECM in radiation-damaged sites promotes TNBC invasion and proliferation as well as an immunosuppressive microenvironment. This work represents an important step toward elucidating how changes in the ECM after RT contribute to breast cancer recurrence.

Cancer‑associated fibroblasts under therapy‑induced senescence in the tumor microenvironment (Review)

Current cancer treatments target tumor cells; however, the tumor microenvironment (TME) induces therapeutic resistance, tumor development and metastasis, thus rendering these treatments ineffective. Research on the TME has therefore concentrated on nonmalignant cells. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) are a major TME component, which contribute to cancer progression due to their diverse origins, phenotypes and functions, including cancer cell invasion and migration, extracellular matrix remodeling, tumor metabolism modulation and therapeutic resistance. Standard cancer treatment typically exacerbates the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) of senescent cancer cells and nonmalignant cells that actively leak proinflammatory signals in the TME. Therapy-induced senescence may impair cancer cell activity and compromise treatment responsiveness. CAFs and SASP are well-studied in the formation and progression of cancer. The present review discusses the current data on CAF senescence caused by anticancer treatment and assesses how senescence-like CAFs affect tumor formation. The development of senolytic medication for aging stromal cells is also highlighted. Combining cancer therapies with senolytics may boost therapeutic effects and provide novel possibilities for research.

Aged breast matrix bound vesicles promote breast cancer invasiveness

Aging is one of the inherent risk factors for breast cancer. Although the influence of age-related cellular alterations on breast cancer development has been extensively explored, little is known about the alterations in the aging breast tissue microenvironment, specifically the extracellular matrix (ECM). Here, for the first time in literature, we have identified tissue resident matrix bound vesicles (MBVs) within the healthy mouse breast ECM, investigated and compared their characteristics in young and aged healthy breast tissues, and studied the effects of these MBVs on normal (KTB21) and cancerous (MDA-MB-231) human mammary epithelial cells with respect to the tissue age that they are extracted from. Using vesicle labeling technology, we were able to visualize cellular uptake of the MBVs directly from the native decellularized tissue sections, showing that these MBVs have regulatory roles in the tissue microenvironment. We mimicked the ECM by embedding the MBVs in collagen gels, and showed that MBVs could be taken up by the cells. The miRNA and cytokine profiling showed that MBVs shifted towards a more tumorigenic and invasive phenotype with age, as evidenced by the more pronounced presence of cancer-associated cytokines, and higher expression levels of oncomiRs miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210 in MBVs isolated from aged mice. When treated with MBVs or these upregulated factors, KTB21 and MDA-MB-231 cells showed significantly higher motility and invasion compared to untreated controls. Treatment of cells with a cocktail of miRNAs (miR-10b, miR-30e, and miR-210) or with the agonist of adiponectin (AdipoRon), which both were enriched in the aged MBVs, recapitulated the effect of aged MBVs on cells. This study shows for the first time that the MBVs have a regulatory role in the tissue microenvironment and that the MBV contents change towards cancer-promoting upon aging. Studying the effects of MBVs and their cargos on cellular behavior could lead to a better understanding of the critical roles of MBVs played in breast cancer progression and metastasis.

An entropy-based approach for assessing the directional persistence of cell migration

Cell migration, which is primarily characterized by directional persistence, is essential for the development of normal tissues and organs, as well as for numerous pathological processes. However, there is a lack of simple and efficient tools to analyze the systematic properties of persistence based on cellular trajectory data. Here, we present a novel approach, the entropy of angular distribution , which combines cellular turning dynamics and Shannon entropy to explore the statistical and time-varying properties of persistence that strongly correlate with cellular migration modes. Our results reveal the changes in the persistence of multiple cell lines that are tightly regulated by both intra- and extracellular cues, including Arpin protein, collagen gel/substrate, and physical constraints. Significantly, some previously unreported distinctive details of persistence have also been captured, helping to elucidate how directional persistence is distributed and evolves in different cell populations. The analysis suggests that the entropy of angular distribution-based approach provides a powerful metric for evaluating directional persistence and enables us to better understand the relationships between cellular behaviors and multiscale cues, which also provides some insights into the migration dynamics of cell populations, such as collective cell invasion.

Single-Cell Transcription Mapping of Murine and Human Mammary Organoids Responses to Female Hormones

During female adolescence and pregnancy, rising levels of hormones result in a cyclic source of signals that control the development of mammary tissue. While such alterations are well understood from a whole-gland perspective, the alterations that such hormones bring to organoid cultures derived from mammary glands have yet to be fully mapped. This is of special importance given that organoids are considered suitable systems to understand cross species breast development. Here we utilized single-cell transcriptional profiling to delineate responses of murine and human normal breast organoid systems to female hormones across evolutionary distinct species. Collectively, our study represents a molecular atlas of epithelial dynamics in response to estrogen and pregnancy hormones.

Pan-cancer analyses of senescence-related genes in extracellular matrix characterization in cancer

PURPOSE

The aged microenvironment plays a crucial role in tumor onset and progression. However, it remains unclear whether and how the aging of the extracellular matrix (ECM) influences cancer onset and progression. Furthermore, the mechanisms and implications of extracellular matrix senescence-related genes (ECM-SRGs) in pan-cancer have not been investigated.

METHODS

We collected profiling data from over 10,000 individuals, covering 33 cancer types, 750 small molecule drugs, and 24 immune cell types, for a thorough and systematic analysis of ECM-SRGs in cancer.

RESULTS

We observed a significant correlation between immune cell infiltrates and Gene Set Variation Analysis enrichment scores of ECM-SRGs in 33 cancer types. Moreover, our results revealed significant differences in immune cell infiltration among patients with copy number variations (CNV) and single nucleotide variations (SNV) in ECM-SRGs across various malignancies. Aberrant hypomethylation led to increased ECM-SRGs expression, and in specific malignancies, a connection between ECM-SRGs hypomethylation and adverse patient survival was established. The frequency of CNV and SNV in ECM-SRGs was elevated. We observed a positive correlation between CNV, SNV, and ECM-SRGs expression. Furthermore, a correlation was found between the high frequency of CNV and SNV in ECM-SRGs and poor patient survival in several cancer types. Additionally, the results demonstrated that ECM-SRGs expression could serve as a predictor of patient survival in diverse cancers. Pathway analysis unveiled the role of ECM-SRGs in activating EMT, apoptosis, and the RAS/MAPK signaling pathway while suppressing the cell cycle, hormone AR, and the response to DNA damage signaling pathway. Finally, we conducted searches in the "Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer" and "Genomics of Therapeutics Response Portal" databases, identifying several drugs that target ECM-SRGs.

CONCLUSIONS

We conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the genomes and immunogenomics of ECM-SRGs, along with their clinical features in 33 solid tumors. This may provide insights into the relationship between ECM-SRGs and tumorigenesis. Consequently, targeting these ECM-SRGs holds promise as a clinical approach for cancer treatment.

FEATURES OF BREAST CANCER IN PATIENTS OF YOUNG AGE: SEARCH FOR DIAGNOSIS OPTIMIZATION AND PERSONALIZED TREATMENT

The statistical data of the recent decades demonstrate a rapid growth of breast cancer (BCa) incidence and a tendency toward its increase especially in young women. In the structure of morbidity of women in the age group of 18-29 years, BCa ranks first and in the age range of 15-39 years, BCa is one of the leading causes of mortality. According to the data of the epidemiological and clinical studies, the young age is an independent unfavorable prognostic factor of BCa that is associated with an unfavorable prognosis and low survival rates and is considered an important predictor of the disease aggressiveness, a high risk of metastasis and recurrence. The variability of clinicopathological and molecular-biological features of BCa in patients of different age groups as well as the varying course of the disease and different responses to the therapy are mediated by many factors. The analysis of the literature data on the factors and mechanisms of BCa initiation in patients of different age groups demonstrates that the pathogen- esis of BCa depends not only on the molecular-genetic alterations but also on the metabolic disorders caused by the current social and household rhythm of life and nutrition peculiarities. All these factors affect both the general con- dition of the body and the formation of an aggressive microenvironment of the tumor lesion. The identified features of transcriptome and the differential gene expression give evidence of different regulations of the immune response and the metabolic processes in BCa patients of different age groups. Association between the high expression of the components of the stromal microenvironment and the inflammatory immune infiltrate as well as the increased vascu- larization of the tumor lesion has been found in BCa tissue of young patients. Proving the nature of the formation of the landscape comprising molecular-genetic, cytokine, and immune factors of the tumor microenvironment will undoubtedly contribute to our understanding of the mechanisms of tumor growth allowing for the development of algorithms for delineating the groups at high risk of tumor progression, which requires more careful monitoring and personalized treatment approach. Th s will be helpful in the development of innovative technologies for complex BCa treatment.

Single-cell transcription mapping of murine and human mammary organoids responses to female hormones

During female adolescence and pregnancy, rising levels of hormones result in a cyclic source of signals that control the development of mammary tissue. While such alterations are well understood from a whole-gland perspective, the alterations that such hormones bring to organoid cultures derived from mammary glands have yet to be fully mapped. This is of special importance given that organoids are considered suitable systems to understand cross species breast development. Here we utilized single-cell transcriptional profiling to delineate responses of murine and human normal breast organoid systems to female hormones across evolutionary distinct species. Collectively, our study represents a molecular atlas of epithelial dynamics in response to estrogen and pregnancy hormones.

Changes in the mammary gland during aging and its links with breast diseases

The functional capacity of organisms declines in the process of aging. In the case of breast tissue, abnormal mammary gland development can lead to dysfunction in milk secretion, a primary function, as well as the onset of various diseases, such as breast cancer. In the process of aging, the terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs) within the breast undergo gradual degeneration, while the proportion of adipose tissue in the breast continues to increase and hormonal levels in the breast change accordingly. Here, we review changes in morphology, internal structure, and cellular composition that occur in the mammary gland during aging. We also explore the emerging mechanisms of breast aging and the relationship between changes during aging and breast-related diseases, as well as potential interventions for delaying mammary gland aging and preventing breast disease.

Towards a Synthesis of the Non-Genetic and Genetic Views of Cancer in Understanding Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma Initiation and Prevention

While much of the research in oncogenesis and cancer therapy has focused on mutations in key cancer driver genes, more recent work suggests a complementary non-genetic paradigm. This paradigm focuses on how transcriptional and phenotypic heterogeneity, even in clonally derived cells, can create sub-populations associated with oncogenesis, metastasis, and therapy resistance. We discuss this complementary paradigm in the context of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. A better understanding of cellular transcriptional heterogeneity and its association with oncogenesis can lead to more effective therapies that prevent tumor initiation and slow progression.

Cellular rejuvenation: molecular mechanisms and potential therapeutic interventions for diseases

The ageing process is a systemic decline from cellular dysfunction to organ degeneration, with more predisposition to deteriorated disorders. Rejuvenation refers to giving aged cells or organisms more youthful characteristics through various techniques, such as cellular reprogramming and epigenetic regulation. The great leaps in cellular rejuvenation prove that ageing is not a one-way street, and many rejuvenative interventions have emerged to delay and even reverse the ageing process. Defining the mechanism by which roadblocks and signaling inputs influence complex ageing programs is essential for understanding and developing rejuvenative strategies. Here, we discuss the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that counteract cell rejuvenation, and the targeted cells and core mechanisms involved in this process. Then, we critically summarize the latest advances in state-of-art strategies of cellular rejuvenation. Various rejuvenation methods also provide insights for treating specific ageing-related diseases, including cellular reprogramming, the removal of senescence cells (SCs) and suppression of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), metabolic manipulation, stem cells-associated therapy, dietary restriction, immune rejuvenation and heterochronic transplantation, etc. The potential applications of rejuvenation therapy also extend to cancer treatment. Finally, we analyze in detail the therapeutic opportunities and challenges of rejuvenation technology. Deciphering rejuvenation interventions will provide further insights into anti-ageing and ageing-related disease treatment in clinical settings.

Extracellular matrix remodeling in tumor progression and immune escape: from mechanisms to treatments

The malignant tumor is a multi-etiological, systemic and complex disease characterized by uncontrolled cell proliferation and distant metastasis. Anticancer treatments including adjuvant therapies and targeted therapies are effective in eliminating cancer cells but in a limited number of patients. Increasing evidence suggests that the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in tumor development through changes in macromolecule components, degradation enzymes and stiffness. These variations are under the control of cellular components in tumor tissue via the aberrant activation of signaling pathways, the interaction of the ECM components to multiple surface receptors, and mechanical impact. Additionally, the ECM shaped by cancer regulates immune cells which results in an immune suppressive microenvironment and hinders the efficacy of immunotherapies. Thus, the ECM acts as a barrier to protect cancer from treatments and supports tumor progression. Nevertheless, the profound regulatory network of the ECM remodeling hampers the design of individualized antitumor treatment. Here, we elaborate on the composition of the malignant ECM, and discuss the specific mechanisms of the ECM remodeling. Precisely, we highlight the impact of the ECM remodeling on tumor development, including proliferation, anoikis, metastasis, angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, and immune escape. Finally, we emphasize ECM "normalization" as a potential strategy for anti-malignant treatment.

Unsupervised Analysis Based on DCE-MRI Radiomics Features Revealed Three Novel Breast Cancer Subtypes with Distinct Clinical Outcomes and Biological Characteristics

Background: This study aimed to reveal the heterogeneity of dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (DCE-MRI) of breast cancer (BC) and identify its prognosis values and molecular characteristics. Methods: Two radiogenomics cohorts (n = 246) were collected and tumor regions were segmented semi-automatically. A total of 174 radiomics features were extracted, and the imaging subtypes were identified and validated by unsupervised analysis. A gene-profile-based classifier was developed to predict the imaging subtypes. The prognostic differences and the biological and microenvironment characteristics of subtypes were uncovered by bioinformatics analysis. Results: Three imaging subtypes were identified and showed high reproducibility. The subtypes differed remarkably in tumor sizes and enhancement patterns, exhibiting significantly different disease-free survival (DFS) or overall survival (OS) in the discovery cohort (p = 0.024) and prognosis datasets (p ranged from <0.0001 to 0.0071). Large sizes and rapidly enhanced tumors usually had the worst outcomes. Associations were found between imaging subtypes and the established subtypes or clinical stages (p ranged from <0.001 to 0.011). Imaging subtypes were distinct in cell cycle and extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction pathways (false discovery rate, FDR < 0.25) and different in cellular fractions, such as cancer-associated fibroblasts (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The imaging subtypes had different clinical outcomes and biological characteristics, which may serve as potential biomarkers.

Recent Advances in the Aging Microenvironment of Breast Cancer

Simple Summary

The incidence of breast cancer has increased rapidly in recent years. Aging is one of the risk factors for advanced breast cancer. More and more studies have been conducted on the influence of the aging microenvironment on breast cancer. In this review, we summarize the effects of physical changes in the aging microenvironment, senescence-associated secretory phenotypes, and senescent stromal cells on the initiation and progression of breast cancer and the underlying mechanisms. In addition, we also discuss potential targets for senotherapeutics and senescence-inducing agents in the aging microenvironment of breast cancer. We hope this review can provide some directions for future research on the aging microenvironment in breast cancer.

Abstract

Aging is one of the risk factors for advanced breast cancer. With the increasing trend toward population aging, it is important to study the effects of aging on breast cancer in depth. Cellular senescence and changes in the aging microenvironment in vivo are the basis for body aging and death. In this review, we focus on the influence of the aging microenvironment on breast cancer. Increased breast extracellular matrix stiffness in the aging breast extracellular matrix can promote the invasion of breast cancer cells. The role of senescence-associated secretory phenotypes (SASPs) such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and matrix metalloproteases (MMPs), in breast cancer cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis is worthy of exploration. Furthermore, the impact of senescent fibroblasts, adipocytes, and endothelial cells on the mammary matrix is discussed in detail. We also list potential targets for senotherapeutics and senescence-inducing agents in the aging microenvironment of breast cancer. In conclusion, this review offers an overview of the influence of the aging microenvironment on breast cancer initiation and progression, with the aim of providing some directions for future research on the aging microenvironment in breast cancer.

Age alters the oncogenic trajectory toward luminal mammary tumors that activate unfolded proteins responses

A major limitation in the use of mouse models in breast cancer research is that most mice develop estrogen receptor-alpha (ERα)-negative mammary tumors, while in humans, the majority of breast cancers are ERα-positive. Therefore, developing mouse models that best mimic the disease in humans is of fundamental need. Here, using an inducible MMTV-rtTA/TetO-NeuNT mouse model, we show that despite being driven by the same oncogene, mammary tumors in young mice are ERα-negative, while they are ERα-positive in aged mice. To further elucidate the mechanisms for this observation, we performed RNAseq analysis and identified genes that are uniquely expressed in aged female-derived mammary tumors. We found these genes to be involved in the activation of the ERα axis of the mitochondrial UPR and the ERα-mediated regulation of XBP-1s, a gene involved in the endoplasmic reticulum UPR. Collectively, our results indicate that aging alters the oncogenic trajectory towards the ERα-positive subtype of breast cancers, and that mammary tumors in aged mice are characterized by the upregulation of multiple UPR stress responses regulated by the ERα.

Mechanisms of Cell Adhesion Molecules in Endocrine-Related Cancers: A Concise Outlook

Chemotherapy is a critical treatment for endocrine-related cancers; however, chemoresistance and disease recurrence remain a challenge. The interplay between cancer cells and the tumor microenvironment via cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) promotes drug resistance, known as cell adhesion-mediated drug resistance (CAM-DR). CAMs are cell surface molecules that facilitate cell-to-cell or cell-to-extracellular matrix binding. CAMs exert an adhesion effect and trigger intracellular signaling that regulates cancer cell stemness maintenance, survival, proliferation, metastasis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, and drug resistance. To understand these mechanisms, this review focuses on the role of CD44, cadherins, selectins, and integrins in CAM-DR in endocrine-related cancers.