Fate and preservation of the late pleistocene cave bears from Niedźwiedzia Cave in Poland, through taphonomy, pathology, and geochemistry

This comprehensive study examines fossil remains from Niedźwiedzia Cave in the Eastern Sudetes, offering detailed insights into the palaeobiology and adversities encountered by the Pleistocene cave bear Ursus spelaeus ingressus. Emphasising habitual cave use for hibernation and a primarily herbivorous diet, the findings attribute mortality to resource scarcity during hibernation and habitat fragmentation amid climate shifts. Taphonomic analysis indicates that the cave was extensively used by successive generations of bears, virtually unexposed to the impact of predators. The study also reveals that alkaline conditions developed in the cave during the post-depositional taphonomic processes. Mortality patterns, notably among juveniles, imply dwindling resources, indicative of environmental instability. Skeletal examination reveals a high incidence of forelimb fractures, indicating risks during activities like digging or confrontations. Palaeopathological evidence unveils vulnerabilities to tuberculosis, abscesses, rickets, and injuries, elucidating mobility challenges. The cave's silts exhibit a high zinc concentration, potentially derived from successive bear generations consuming zinc-rich plants. This study illuminates the lives of late cave bears, elucidating unique environmental hurdles faced near their species' end.

New Equations for the Estimation of the Age of the Formation of the Harris Lines

Harris Lines (HLs) are transverse, sclerotic lines that can be visualized by X-ray imaging and that occur in long bones, most commonly in the tibia and femur. HLs are associated with disrupted bone mineralization during endochondral ossification, affecting the normal growth process. The etiology of HLs is debated, with some claims linking their presence to detrimental factors such as inflammation, malnutrition, alcohol abuse, and diseases. The age at which HLs form can be estimated based on their location, which allows for a retrospective assessment of the individual's health status during childhood or youth. The current study is concerned with providing new equations to estimate the age of Harris Line occurrences using a simple calculating tool. Bone growth curves were derived based on a dataset provided by Byers in 1991 using non-linear estimation. The best model was chosen with the Akaike Information Criterion. New and old methods were compared through Bland-Altman plots. As a result, we managed to produce reliable, well-fitted growth curves, concordant with previous methods.

The various meanings and uses of bone "remodeling" in biological anthropology: A review

OBJECTIVES

In modern bone biology, the term "remodeling" generally refers to internal bone turnover that creates secondary osteons. However, it is also widely used by skeletal biologists, including biological anthropologists as a catch-all term to refer to different skeletal changes. In this review, we investigated how "remodeling" is used across topics on skeletal biology in biological anthropology to demonstrate potential problems with such pervasive use of a generalized term.

METHODS

Using PubMed and Google Scholar, we selected and reviewed 205 articles that use the term remodeling to describe skeletal processes and have anthropological implications. Nine edited volumes were also reviewed as examples of collaborative work by different experts to demonstrate the diverse and extensive use of the term remodeling.

RESULTS

Four general meanings of bone "remodeling" were identified, namely, internal turnover, functional adaptation, fracture repair, and growth remodeling. Additionally, remodeling is also used to refer to a broad array of pathological skeletal changes.

DISCUSSION

Although we initially identified four general meanings of bone remodeling, they are not mutually exclusive and often occur in combination. The term "remodeling" has become an extensively used catch-all term to refer to different processes and outcomes of skeletal changes, which inevitably lead to misunderstanding and a loss of information. Such ambiguity and confusion are potentially problematic as the field of biological anthropology becomes increasingly multidisciplinary. Therefore, we advocate for precise, context-specific definitions and explanations of bone remodeling as it continues to be used across disciplines within and beyond biological anthropology.

Value of growth arrest lines for predicting treatment effect on children with distal tibial epiphysis fractures

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explore whether growth arrest lines can predict epiphyseal fracture healing.

METHOD

The data of 234 children with distal tibial epiphysis fractures treated in our hospital from February 2014 to February 2022 were retrospectively analyzed. Imaging data were examined to record epiphyseal grade, fracture type, and the time to appearance of growth arrest lines. Follow-up data were retrieved to record treatment results (i.e., malunion, premature closure, or bone bridge formation).

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in the time to appearance of growth arrest lines between patients with epiphyseal grade 0-1 and grade 2-3 (P < 0.05) and between patients with normal healing and patients with a bone bridge (P < 0.05). Among patients with normal healing, there were no significant differences in the time to appearance of growth arrest lines between men and women and between patients with and without surgery (P > 0.05). There was a significant difference in the time to appearance of growth arrest lines between patients with different Salter-Harris fracture types (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

For patients with epiphyseal grade 0-1, the time to appearance of growth arrest lines could be useful for predicting the treatment result of a distal tibial epiphyseal fracture.

Park-Harris Lines

Park-Harris lines are radiographically apparent linear opacities that occur in a metaphyseal bone in proximity to a physis. Lines correspond to a temporary interruption of the normally ossifying physis with a sclerotic line corresponding to transversely oriented trabeculae. They were first appreciated in the long bones of diabetic children and have since been described in various metabolic, endocrinologic, infectious, neoplastic, and posttraumatic conditions as well as in response to systemic medications. Park-Harris lines are clinically useful in demarcating notable events in whole-body or individual bone development, in tracking longitudinal growth, or in assessing physeal arrest and responses to its treatment. There remains controversy about whether these lines are pathologic or a component of physiologic development and whether they constitute true "growth arrest" or rather "growth recovery." In this review, the history, pathophysiology, imaging, and clinical use of Park-Harris lines as well as an anthropological perspective on their utility for studying illness, nutrition, and historical living conditions over time are discussed.

An Integrated Study of the Mesolithic Skeleton in Theopetra Cave, Greece: From the Skeleton Analysis to 3D Face Reconstruction

Skeletal evidence dating back to the Mesolithic period is scarce and should be studied under a multidisciplinary perspective. The primary objective of the study was to carefully assess the skeleton of a young woman from this era, named “Avgi,” to compile its bioarchaeological profile, analyze its paleopathology and dental pathology, and deploy a 3D reconstruction and modeling method in order to reveal her face. Both demographic and pathological information were drawn from macroscopically observing the bones, long bone X-rays, skull CT and X-rays, 3D modeling and printing of the skull, and panoramic dental X-rays. The Manchester method was used for the 3D facial reconstruction. On analysis, we determined that Avgi was a female adolescent, aged around 17–19 years at death, and likely suffering from iron deficiency anemia and Class III dental malocclusion. Notably, Harris lines and a hair-on-end pattern were identified in the long bones and skull radiographs, respectively. Various less significant skeletal lesions reflected potential minor pathologies. Our findings suggest that multidisciplinary collaborative approaches should be followed in the modern study of lesser-known past eras. Multiple scientific perspectives, as well as social structures, geographical aspects, settlements, population movements, and social networks should all be taken into account when assessing lifestyle characteristics and paleopathological signs in skeletal remains.

Heterogeneous frailty and the expression of linear enamel hypoplasia in a genealogical population

OBJECTIVES

Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) is a common skeletal marker of physiological stress (e.g., malnutrition or illness) that is studied within and across populations, without reference to familial risk. We examine LEH prevalence in a population with known genealogical relationships to determine the potential influence of genetic heritability and shared environment.

METHODS

LEH data of 239 individuals from a single population were recorded from the Ohio State University Menegaz-Bock collection dental casts. All individuals were of known age, sex, and genealogy. Narrow-sense heritability estimates were obtained for LEH presence and count data from all unworn, fully erupted teeth (excluding third molars) using SOLAR (v.8.1.1). Age, sex, and age-sex interaction were included as covariates. Models were re-run with a household effect variable.

RESULTS

LEH persists across generations in this study population with moderate, significant heritability estimates for presence in four teeth, and count in four teeth (three teeth were significant for both). When a household effect variable was added, no residual heritability remained for LEH count on any tooth. There was no significant household effect for three of the four teeth that had significant heritability estimates for LEH presence. Age was a significant covariate. Further analyses with birth year data revealed a secular trend toward less LEH.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence for familial risk of LEH (genetic and environmental) that has consequences for the broad use of this skeletal marker of stress. These results have repercussions for archaeological assemblages, or population health studies, where genetic relatives and household groups might be heavily represented.

Severe skeletal lesions, osteopenia and growth deficit in a child with pulmonary tuberculosis (mid-20th century, Portugal)

OBJECTIVE

This case-study provides a summary of skeletal lesions seen in a case of diagnosed juvenile pulmonary tuberculosis with extensive multifocal bony lesions.

MATERIALS

Skeleton of a 9-year-old girl who died in the 1940s in Lisbon, Portugal. The remains of this individual are part of the Lisbon skeletal reference collection curated at the National Museum of Natural History and Science.

METHODS

Lesions and paleopathological conditions were identified and documented through macroscopic, radiographic, computed tomographic, and mammographic analysis.

RESULTS

The skeleton shows a variety of lytic lesions on the ribs and thoracic vertebrae including complete destruction of the bodies and fusion of the vertebral arches of four vertebrae, kyphosis, and scoliosis. Further pathological conditions were identified, including bone erosion, premature fusion of the left femoral head and greater trochanter, and abnormal size and shape changes to the lower limbs including loss of bone mass and stunting of the long bones.

CONCLUSIONS

Skeletal lesions are indicative of spondylitis, Pott's disease, and prolonged bedrest.

SIGNIFICANCE

This case is one of the few examples of confirmed juvenile pulmonary tuberculosis with skeletal lesions prior to the antibiotic era. As such, it provides a reference for the skeletal abnormalities which may be observed in archaeological tuberculosis cases.

LIMITATIONS

Pulmonary tuberculosis was recorded as cause of death, however there is no documentation to know the length of illness period or the existence of any comorbidities.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

Consideration of multi-focal lesions is recommended when analyzing individuals with suspected tuberculosis.

Growth recovery lines: a specific indicator of child abuse and neglect?

BACKGROUND

Growth recovery lines are radiodense lines in long bones reported to be indicators of stress.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to understand the distribution, quantity and associations of growth recovery lines in children ages 0-24 months with high and low risk for child maltreatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of children ages 0-24 months who had skeletal surveys and an assessment for maltreatment. Growth recovery lines, fractures and osteopenia were assessed independently by two pediatric radiologists blinded to the abuse likelihood.

RESULTS

Of the 135 children in this study, 58 were in the low-risk group, 26 were in the neglect group, and 51 were in the physical abuse group. Children in the neglected and physically abused groups had 1.73 times (95% confidence interval [CI] of 1.16, 2.59), P=0.007) and 1.84 times (95% CI 1.28, 2.63, P<0.001) more growth recovery lines than the low-risk group, respectively. Growth recovery lines occurred at an earlier age in the neglect group (age interaction P=0.03) and abuse group (age interaction P=0.01) compared to the low-risk group. The specificity for maltreatment in children with at least 10 growth recovery lines in the long bones was greater than 84%, while sensitivity was less than 35%. The most common locations for growth recovery lines were distal radius, proximal tibia and distal tibia.

CONCLUSION

In the absence of a known major stressor, physical abuse and neglect should be considered in children younger than 24 months with at least 10 growth recovery lines.

Temporal changes in childhood health during the medieval Little Ice Age in Denmark

OBJECTIVE

This study examines the evidence of three skeletal markers of childhood health that leave permanent observable changes in the adult skeleton during two climate events, the Medieval Warm Period (MWP) and the Little Ice Age (LIA) that occurred in the medieval period (1050-1536 CE).

MATERIAL

A total of 241 adult skeletons from the Danish medieval period were included.

METHODS

Linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH) was examined macroscopically. Harris lines (HL) and infectious middle ear disease (IMED) were examined from CT imaging. The skeletons were segregated by the mortuary pattern of arm position that coincidentally changes between the MWP to the LIA.

RESULTS

LEH and IMED increase in frequency from the MWP to the LIA while there is a reverse trend for HL.

SIGNIFICANCE

This is the first study that examines childhood health as reflected on skeletal remains of adults using a combination of CT imaging and macroscopic examination for temporal changes in the medieval period.

LIMITATIONS

The study did not include any sub-adults due to limitation of methods, i.e. the method of IMED is not yet developed to assess sub-adults. Neither was time-of-occurrence for the skeletal marker included as there is conflicting information from different methods for HL and neither has it been developed yet for IMED.

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

A sample of sub-adults from both time periods could be compared by sub-adult mortality, as well as for differences in the timing of skeletal age markers.

Childhood health as reflected in adult urban and rural samples from medieval Denmark

This study examines the evidence of three skeletal markers relating to childhood health that leave permanent observable changes in the adult skeleton. Two are well known to paleopathology, namely Harris lines (HL) and linear enamel hypoplasia (LEH). The third skeletal marker is less commonly used; the permanent changes in the temporal bones, induced by chronic or recurrent infectious middle ear disease (IMED) in childhood. A total of 291 adult skeletons from an urban (n = 109) and a rural (n = 182) cemetery, from the Danish medieval period (1050-1536 CE) were included. The markers were examined for their co-occurrence, and differences between the two samples. No statistically significant difference for the three skeletal markers between the two samples was found. A trend was nevertheless apparent, with greater frequencies for all three skeletal markers for the urban population. A statistically significant relationship was found only between IMED and HL. This positive relation was very low (r_ɸ = 0.307, 0.275) and may be considered non-existent. The lack of co-occurrence is interpreted as if an individual was exposed to conditions that could cause the osteological expression of all three markers this could be a life-threatening health condition, during developing years.

Frequency of appearance of transverse (Harris) lines reflects living conditions of the Pleistocene bear-Ursus ingressus-(Sudety Mts., Poland)

Transverse lines, called Harris Lines (HL), osteological markers of recovery from growth arrest episodes, are visible in radiograms of recent and Pleistocene fossil bones. Since on the one hand they mark stressful episodes in life, and on the other are mainly used to trace health fluctuations in prehistoric human communities, I used a cave bear population to check if the processes that could affect the specie' condition were in any way reflected in the bone structure. 392 bear bones from Bear Cave in Kletno (collection: Department of Palaeozoology, University of Wrocław), dated as 32 100 ±1300 to >49 000 years BP, were radiologically examined. The bones were found in a non-anatomical position; morphological analysis indicated that they belonged to different individuals. HL shadows were observed on 9 tibiae and 3 radii: 8.8% out of the 59 tibiae and 77 radii and 3.1% of all the bones. At least 3 transverse lines were recognised in those cases; the specimens were histologically examined. The bear individuals in question experienced regular malnutrition periods during their ontogeny. Starvation resulting in growth inhibition involved young individuals, aged 1 to 4 years. Juveniles aged 6 months, i.e. before weaning, or younger, showed no signs of nutritional stress. Starvation periods associated with seasonal food deficit were not long or common and had no significant effect on the development and welfare of the species. This is the first description of the occurrence of transverse lines in the Pleistocene bear.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging Features as Surrogate Markers of X-Linked Hypophosphatemic Rickets Activity

OBJECTIVE

X-linked hypophosphatemic rickets (XLH) is the most common form of inheritable rickets. Rickets treatment is monitored by assessing alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels, clinical features, and radiographs. Our objectives were to describe the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) features of XLH and to assess correlations with disease activity.

STUDY DESIGN

Twenty-seven XLH patients (median age 9.2 years) were included in this prospective single-center observational study. XLH activity was assessed using height, leg bowing, dental abscess history, and serum ALP levels. We looked for correlations between MRI features and markers of disease activity.

RESULTS

On MRI, the median maximum width of the physis was 5.6 mm (range 4.8-7.8; normal <1.5), being >1.5 mm in all of the patients. The appearance of the zone of provisional calcification was abnormal on 21 MRI images (78%), Harris lines were present on 24 (89%), and bone marrow signal abnormalities were present on 16 (59%). ALP levels correlated with the maximum physeal widening and with the transverse extent of the widening.

CONCLUSIONS

MRI of the knee provides precise rickets patterns that are correlated with ALP, an established biochemical marker of the disease, avoiding X-ray exposure and providing surrogate quantitative markers of disease activity.

Multidisciplinary Identification of the Controversial Freedom Fighter Jörg Jenatsch, Assassinated 1639 in Chur, Switzerland

Jörg Jenatsch, a leading freedom fighter during the Thirty Year’s War in Graubünden, Switzerland, was assassinated on carnival 1639. Jenatsch’s controversial biography and the unclear circumstances of his death inspired the formation of various legends, novels and films. In 1959, a skeleton discovered in the cathedral of Chur with remains of wealthy baroque clothing was tentatively attributed to Jenatsch. Here, we reassess the skeleton based on a new exhumation. Our multidisciplinary analysis and the head injuries are consistent with reports of the eyewitnesses of the crime, demonstrating that Jenatsch was killed from behind with a semi-sharp implement, supposedly an axe, as well as by a blow with a broad-surfaced object. Moreover, our facial reconstruction closely matches an oil portrait of Jenatsch, and the HIrisPlex system applied to DNA-extracts from the femoral bone reveals brown eye and dark brown hair colour, which coincides well with the portrait, too. Finally, isotope analysis of the femoral bone and a molar support Jenatsch’s high social status, luxury diet and a high mobility in the last decade of his life. This multidisciplinary approach thus reinforces personal identification and provides additional insight into the life of this important historic person beyond written resources.

Growth recovery lines are more common in infants at high vs. low risk for abuse

BACKGROUND

Growth recovery lines, also known as growth arrest lines, are transverse radiodense metaphyseal bands that develop due to a temporary arrest of endochondral ossification caused by local or systemic insults.

OBJECTIVE

To determine if growth recovery lines are more common in infants at high risk versus low risk for abuse.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Reports of American College of Radiology compliant skeletal surveys (1999-2013) were reviewed with clinical records. Infants at low risk for abuse had a skull fracture without significant intracranial injury, history of a fall and clinical determination of low risk (child protection team/social work assessment). Infants at high risk had significant intracranial injury, retinal hemorrhages, other skeletal injuries and clinical determination of high risk. There were 52 low-risk infants (mean: 4.7 months, range: 0.4-12 months) and 21 high-risk infants (mean: 4.2 months, range: 0.8-9.1 months). Two blinded radiologists independently evaluated the skeletal survey radiographs of the knees/lower legs for the presence of at least one growth recovery line.

RESULTS

When growth recovery lines are scored as probably present or definitely present, their prevalence in the low-risk group was 38% (standard deviation [SD] = 8%; reader 1 = 17/52, reader 2 = 23/52) vs. 71% (SD = 7%; reader 1 = 16/21, reader 2 = 14/21) in the high-risk group (P < 0.001; odds ratio 4.0, 95% CI: 1.7-9.5).

CONCLUSION

Growth recovery lines are encountered at a significantly higher rate in infants at high risk vs. low risk for abuse. This suggests that abused infants are prone to a temporary disturbance in endochondral ossification as a result of episodic physiological stresses.

Normal growth, altered growth? Study of the relationship between harris lines and bone form within a post-medieval plague cemetery (Dendermonde, Belgium, 16th Century)

OBJECTIVES

Harris lines (HLs) are defined as transverse, mineralized lines associated with temporary growth arrest. In paleopathology, HLs are used to reconstruct health status of past populations. However, their etiology is still obscure. The aim of this article is to test the reliability of HLs as an arrested growth marker by investigating their incidence on human metrical parameters.

METHODS

The study was performed on 69 individuals (28 adults, 41 subadults) from the Dendermonde plague cemetery (Belgium, 16th century). HLs were rated on distal femora and both ends of tibiae. Overall prevalence and age-at-formation of each detected lines were calculated. ANOVA analyses were conducted within subadult and adult samples to test if the presence of HLs did impact size and shape parameters of the individuals.

RESULTS

At Dendermonde, 52% of the individuals had at least one HL. The age-at-formation was estimated between 5 and 9 years old for the subadults and between 10 and 14 years old for the adults. ANOVA analyses showed that the presence of HLs did not affect the size of the individuals. However, significant differences in shape parameters were highlighted by HL presence. Subadults with HLs displayed slighter shape parameters than the subadults without, whereas the adults with HLs had larger measurements than the adults without.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that HLs can have a certain impact on shape parameters. The underlying causes can be various, especially for the early formed HLs. However, HLs deposited around puberty are more likely to be physiological lines reflecting hormonal secretions. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 29:e22885, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Growth Arrest Line Mimicking Lymphoma Involvement: The Findings of (99m)Tc-MDP Bone SPECT/CT and Serial Bone Scan in a Child with Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma

Growth arrest lines appear as dense sclerotic lines parallel to the growth plate of long bones on radiography. We describe the case of a 9-year-old female with growth arrest lines initially masquerading as lymphoma involvement on (99m)Tc-MDP bone scintigraphy who had been treated with chemotherapy for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma about 3 years previously. Subsequent regional bone SPECT/CT clearly diagnosed the growth arrest lines, and retrograde review of previous bone scintigraphy demonstrated line migration in this patient. Growth arrest lines should be considered a possible diagnosis on bone scintigraphy, especially in the surveillance of children who have experienced severe childhood infections, malnutrition, immobilization, or treatment with immunosuppressive or chemotherapeutic drugs that may inhibit bone growth.

Assessment of diet and recognition of nutritional deficiencies in paleopathological studies: A review

An essential part of paleopathology is the study of diet and nutrition as well as inferring aspects of diet and nutrition from the skeletal pathology. Interpretation of nutritional and metabolic disease-related pathologies often provides additional insight into the daily social and cultural practices of people. However, precise diagnoses of specific vitamin-related deficiencies in archaeological skeletal remains are still quite problematic and specific diagnoses are rarely possible. This partly stems from the fact that many nutritional or metabolic diseases do not necessarily result in an osteological response and when they do, the comorbidity and analogous osteological responses to vitamin deficiencies may hamper the definite diagnosis of nutrition-related disease. Clin. Anat. 29:862-869, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Uncovering system-specific stress signatures in primate teeth with multimodal imaging

Early life stress can disrupt development and negatively impact long-term health trajectories. Reconstructing histories of early life exposure to external stressors is hampered by the absence of retrospective time-specific biomarkers. Defects in tooth enamel have been used to reconstruct stress but the methods used are subjective and do not identify the specific biological systems impacted by external stressors. Here we show that external physical and social stressors impart biochemical signatures in primate teeth that can be retrieved to objectively reconstruct the timing of early life developmental disruptions. Using teeth from captive macaques, we uncovered elemental imprints specific to disruptions of skeletal growth, including major disruptions in body weight trajectory and moderate to severe illnesses. Discrete increases in heat shock protein-70 expression in dentine coincided with elemental signatures, confirming that elemental signals were associated with activation of stress-related pathways. To overcome limitations of conventional light-microscopic analysis, we used high resolution Raman microspectral imaging to identify structural and compositional alterations in enamel and dentine that coincided with elemental signatures and with detailed medical and behavioural data. Integrating these objective biochemical markers with temporal mapping of teeth enables the retrospective study of early life developmental disruptions and their ensuing health sequelae.

Histology of a Harris line in a human distal tibia

Identification and diagnosis of Harris lines (HLs) is usually achieved using radiography. To date, histological methods have been mainly implemented in research exploring the underlying processes of HL deposition using longitudinal sections taken from animal bone. Here, a new insight into HL formation is provided following transverse histological sectioning in a human specimen. A distinct HL was identified macroscopically, and from a radiograph, in a left distal tibia taken from an adult human male. Transverse sections were taken through the HL, and also from trabeculae immediately superior and inferior to the HL. Thin sections were produced following standard histological procedures. Micrographs were captured using a digital microscope camera. Trabeculae immediately superior and inferior to the HL displayed no indication of abnormal growth, exhibiting abundant osteocyte lacunae and a lamellar structure. However, the micro-anatomy of the HL was characterised by the following three main features: (1) non-lamellar appearance, (2) a complete lack of osteocyte lacunae, and (3) presence of irregularly distributed tubular structures. These three histological features indicate a specific process of bone deposition, implying that trapping of osteoblasts may not take place during HL formation. Pictorial and descriptive records of HL histology are provided, aiding current understanding about the nature of HL, its identification from histology, and serving as a reference point for future comparative research.

Radiological findings in an ancient Iranian salt mummy (Chehrābād ca. 410-350 BC)

OBJECTIVE

To study pathologies, peri- and postmortal alterations as well as the general preservation state of an ancient Iranian salt mummy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Several mummified remains from two different time periods (1500-2500 BP) were found in the Chehrābād salt mine in Iran. Computed tomography was performed on Salt Man #4 (410-350 BC), the best preserved out of the six salt mummies (Siemens, Sensation 16; 512 × 512 matrix; 0.75-5 mm slice thickness, 240-mA tube current, 120-kV tube voltage, and 0.976-mm pixel size).

RESULTS

Radiological analyses showed an excellent state of preservation of an adolescent body. Several normal variants such as aplasia of the frontal sinus as well as a rare congenital deformation of the 5th vertebral body (butterfly vertebra) have been observed. The individual shows multiple fractures, which is consistent with the theory that he died due to a collapse in the ancient salt mine.

CONCLUSIONS

The salt preserved the soft tissue as well as parts of the inner organs remarkably well. However, further investigations including histology are needed to reveal additional details of the health status of this unique salt mummy.

Skeletal manifestations of stress in child victims of the Great Irish Famine (1845-1852): prevalence of enamel hypoplasia, Harris lines, and growth retardation

The Great Irish Famine of 1845-1852 is among the worst food crises in human history. While numerous aspects of this period have been studied by generations of scholars, relatively little attention has so far been given to the physiological impact it is likely to have had on the people who suffered and succumbed to it. This study examines the prevalence of enamel hypoplasia, Harris lines, and growth retardation in the nonadult proportion of a skeletal population comprising victims of the Famine who died in the workhouse in the city of Kilkenny between 1847 and 1851. The frequency of enamel hypoplasia in these children does not appear to have increased as a consequence of famine, although this fact is likely to be a reflection of the osteological paradox. Harris lines and growth retardation; however, were very prevalent, and the manifestation and age-specific distribution of these may be indicators of the Famine experience. While there was no clear correlation in the occurrence of the assessed markers, the presence of cribra orbitalia displayed a significant relationship to enamel hypoplasia in 1- to 5-year-old children. While starvation, metabolic disorders and infectious diseases are likely to have greatly contributed to the manifestation of the markers, the psychosocial stress relating to institutionalization in the workhouse should not be underestimated as a substantial causative factor for skeletal stress in this population.

Growth arrest lines and intra-epiphyseal silhouettes: a case series

Background

Growth arrest lines can develop within the skeleton after physiological stress or trauma. They are usually evident on radiographs as transverse lines in the metaphyses and have been used in fields from palaeontology to orthopaedics. This report consists of three cases, two of which describe growth arrest lines in an intra-epiphyseal site hitherto rarely documented, and a third demonstrating their clinical application.

Case presentation

Case 1 describes a 9-year-old who suffered a knee hyperflexion injury requiring anterior cruciate ligament and posterior cruciate ligament reattachments. She subsequently developed a marked distal femoral intra-epiphyseal arrest silhouette, as well as metaphyseal arrest lines in the femur, tibia and fibula. Case 2 describes an 8-year-old who sustained a tibial spine fracture and underwent open reduction and internal fixation. Subsequent imaging shows a further example of femoral intra-epiphyseal arrest silhouette as well as tibia and fibula metaphyseal arrest lines. Case 3 describes a 10-year-old who sustained a distal tibia fracture which was managed with open reduction and internal fixation. Subsequently the metaphyseal growth arrest line was parallel to the physis, suggesting no growth arrest (a danger with such a fracture).

Conclusion

This case series describes two examples of rarely described intra-epiphyseal growth arrest silhouettes and demonstrates the usefulness of arrest lines when assessing for growth plate damage.

Fracture through a Harris growth arrest line: a case report

Fractures occur when bone is overloaded and mechanical failure occurs with the fracture propagating along the lines of least resistance. We report the case of a 6-year-old boy who sustained a nondisplaced distal third tibial shaft fracture through a Harris growth arrest line of increased osseous density due to low-energy blunt trauma. This case is used as an opportunity to review the literature on Harris growth arrest lines and discuss a fracture pattern that has not been previously described in the literature.

Mapping human long bone compartmentalisation during ontogeny: a new methodological approach

Throughout ontogeny, human bones undergo differentiation in terms of shape, size and tissue type; this is a complex scenario in which the variations in the tissue compartmentalisation of the cortical bone are still poorly understood. Currently, compartmentalisation is studied using methodologies that oversimplify the bone tissue complexity. Here, we present a new methodological approach that integrates a histological description and a mineral content analysis to study the compartmentalisation of the whole mineralised and non-mineralised tissues (i.e., spatial distribution in long bone sections). This new methodology, based on Geographical Information System (GIS) software, allows us to draw areas of interest (i.e., tracing vectorial shapes which are quantifiable) in raw images that are extracted from microscope and compared them spatially in a semi-automatic and quantitative fashion. As an example of our methodology, we have studied the tibiae from individuals with different age at death (infant, juvenile and adult). The tibia's cortical bone presents a well-formed fibrolamellar bone, in which remodelling is clearly evidenced from early ontogeny, and we discuss the existence of "lines of arrested growth". Concurrent with the histological variation, Raman and FT-IR spectroscopy analyses corroborate that the mineral content in the cortical bone changes differentially. The anterior portion of the tibia remains highly pierced and is less crystalline than the rest of the cortex during growth, which is evidence of more active and continuous remodelling. Finally, while porosity and other "non-mineralised cavities" are largely modified, the mineralised portion and the marrow cavity size persist proportionally during ontogeny.