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Akkuş Eİ, Bayoğlu B, Kocabaşoğlu N, Yıldız JB, Cengiz M. Association of rs11081062 polymorphism of DLGAP1 gene and levels of SLC1A1 protein with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids 2024:1-15. [PMID: 38593060 DOI: 10.1080/15257770.2024.2336213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Glutamate is an important neurotransmitter known to be effective in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between the DLGAP1 gene encoding the scaffold protein of ionotropic glutamate receptors and the SLC1A1 gene encoding the glutamate transporter protein with OCD. Study groups consisted of 95 patients with OCD and 100 healthy controls. The severity of OCD in the patient group was determined by using the Y-BOCS. Single nucleotide polymorphisms of rs11081062 (C/T) in DLGAP1 and rs587777696 (C/T) in SLC1A1 were analyzed by real-time PCR. Levels of SLC1A1 protein were determined by ELISA. A significant difference was found between genotype distributions of rs11081062 in DLGAP1 in study groups (p < 0.001). No significant association was found rs587777696 in SLC1A1 in OCD patients and controls. SLC1A1 protein levels were found to be lower in OCD patients compared to controls (p = 0.005). According to OCD risk estimates for genotypes distributions of rs11081062 in DLGAP1, having CT + TT genotypes was associated with the occurrence of sexual and religious obsessions and counting compulsions (p = 0.038, OR = 2.98; p = 0.033, OR = 3.43; p = 0.035, OR = 2.66, respectively). CT genotype in DLGAP1 rs11081062 polymorphism was found to increase the risk of OCD in the female gender (p = 0.042, OR = 3.01). This study suggests that rs11081062 in DLGAP1 may be associated with OCD and that SLC1A1 protein levels may be involved in the occurrence of OCD. We believe that our research can contribute to the understanding of the importance of glutamate in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efruz İrem Akkuş
- Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Burcu Bayoğlu
- Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Neşe Kocabaşoğlu
- Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Jansed Berfin Yıldız
- Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Türkiye
| | - Müjgan Cengiz
- Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine, Department of Medical Biology, Istanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, Istanbul, Türkiye
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Kopelman JM, Chohan MO, Hsu AI, Yttri EA, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Ahmari SE. Forebrain EAAT3 Overexpression Increases Susceptibility to Amphetamine-Induced Repetitive Behaviors. eNeuro 2024; 11:ENEURO.0090-24.2024. [PMID: 38514191 PMCID: PMC11012153 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0090-24.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating psychiatric disorder characterized by intrusive obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors. Multiple studies have shown the association of polymorphisms in the SLC1A1 gene with OCD. The most common of these OCD-associated polymorphisms increases the expression of the encoded protein, excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a neuronal glutamate transporter. Previous work has shown that increased EAAT3 expression results in OCD-relevant behavioral phenotypes in rodent models. In this study, we created a novel mouse model with targeted, reversible overexpression of Slc1a1 in forebrain neurons. The mice do not have a baseline difference in repetitive behavior but show increased hyperlocomotion following a low dose of amphetamine (3 mg/kg) and increased stereotypy following a high dose of amphetamine (8 mg/kg). We next characterized the effect of amphetamine on striatal cFos response and found that amphetamine increased cFos throughout the striatum in both control and Slc1a1-overexpressing (OE) mice, but Slc1a1-OE mice had increased cFos expression in the ventral striatum relative to controls. We used an unbiased machine classifier to robustly characterize the behavioral response to different doses of amphetamine and found a unique response to amphetamine in Slc1a1-OE mice, relative to controls. Lastly, we found that the differences in striatal cFos expression in Slc1a1-OE mice were driven by cFos expression specifically in D1 neurons, as Slc1a1-OE mice had increased cFos in D1 ventral medial striatal neurons, implicating this region in the exaggerated behavioral response to amphetamine in Slc1a1-OE mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jared M Kopelman
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Muhammad O Chohan
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032
| | - Alex I Hsu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Eric A Yttri
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
| | - Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032
- New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, New York 10032
| | - Susanne E Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
- Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260
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Kosová E, Pajuelo D, Greguš D, Brunovský M, Stopková P, Fajnerová I, Horáček J. Glutamatergic abnormalities in the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder using magnetic resonance spectroscopy: A controlled study. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2023; 335:111721. [PMID: 37832259 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2023.111721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we utilized proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to understand the role of glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln), and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) of OCD patients in the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pgACC). In total, 54 patients with OCD and 54 healthy controls (HC) matched for age and sex were included in the study. They underwent MRS in the pgACC region to calculate the concentrations of Glu, Gln, GABA, and Glu + Gln (Glx). After quality control of the MRS data, 21 OCD and 21 HC were statistically analyzed. The severity of symptoms were evaluated using the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (YBOCS). In the statistical analysis, we compared differences between groups for the metabolites; in the OCD we analyzed the correlations with symptom severity, medication status, age, and duration of illness. A significant decrease in Glx, in Glu, and in Gln in the pgACC were observed in the OCD compared to HC. The correlation statistics showed a significant positive correlation between Glu levels and the YBOCS compulsions subscale. The results indicate that patients with OCD present a disturbance in glutamatergic metabolism in the pgACC. The results also demonstrate that these changes correlate with the severity of compulsions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliška Kosová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Dita Pajuelo
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; MR Unit, Department of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Greguš
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Brunovský
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Stopková
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Iveta Fajnerová
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Horáček
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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Wang L, Chen Y, Wang M, Zhao C, Qiao D. Relationship between gene-environment interaction and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A systematic review. J Psychiatr Res 2023; 164:281-290. [PMID: 37390623 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gene-environment interaction (G × E) refers to the change of genetic effects under the participation of environmental factors resulting in differences in genetic expression. G × E has been studied in the occurrence and development of many neuropsychiatric disorders, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). AIM A systematic review was conducted to investigate the role of G × E plays in OCD. This review explored the relationship between G × E and the susceptibility to OCD occurrence, disease progression, and treatment response. METHODS This systematic literature search was performed using Web of Science, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and CNKI. Seven studies were selected, which included seven genes (BDNF, COMT, MAO, 5-HTT, SMAD4, PGRN, and SLC1A1) polymorphisms, polygenic risk score (PRS), and two environmental factors (childhood trauma and stressful life events). RESULTS Information from this systematic review indicated that G × E increased the susceptibility to OCD, played a crucial role in the clinical characteristics, and had an inconsistent impact on treatment response of OCD. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The multi-omics studies and the inclusion of G × E in future GWAS studies of OCD should be drawn more attention, which may contribute to a deeper understanding of the etiology of OCD as well as guide therapeutic interventions for the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Wang
- Department of Psychology, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, Shandong, 250358, China; Department of Psychiatry, Shandong Mental Health Center, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250014, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, 272000, China
| | - Miao Wang
- Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, 272000, China
| | - Chaoben Zhao
- Jining Medical University, Jining, Shandong, 272000, China
| | - Dongdong Qiao
- Department of Psychiatry, Shandong Mental Health Center, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, 250014, China.
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D'Acquisto F, D'Addario C, Cooper D, Pallanti S, Blacksell I. Peripheral control of psychiatric disorders: Focus on OCD. Are we there yet? Compr Psychiatry 2023; 123:152388. [PMID: 37060625 DOI: 10.1016/j.comppsych.2023.152388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023] Open
Abstract
"We are all in this together" - we often hear this phrase when we want to flag up a problem that is not for a single individual but concerns us all. A similar reflection has been recently made in the field of mental disorders where brain-centric scientists have started to zoom out their brain-focused graphical representations of the mechanisms regulating psychiatric diseases to include other organs or mediators that did not belong historically to the world of neuroscience. The brain itself - that has long been seen as a master in command secluded in its fortress (the blood brain barrier), has now become a collection of Airbnb(s) where all sorts of cells come in and out and sometimes even rearrange the furniture! Under this new framework of reference, mental disorders have become multisystem pathologies where different biological systems - not just the CNS -contribute 'all together' to the development and severity of the disease. In this narrative review article, we will focus on one of the most popular biological systems that has been shown to influence the functioning of the CNS: the immune system. We will specifically highlight the two main features of the immune system and the CNS that we think are important in the context of mental disorders: plasticity and memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulvio D'Acquisto
- School of Life and Health Science, University of Roehampton, London, UK.
| | - Claudio D'Addario
- Faculty of Bioscience, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Dianne Cooper
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Stefano Pallanti
- Albert Einstein College of Medicine,New York, USA; Istituto di Neuroscienze, Florence, Italy
| | - Isobel Blacksell
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
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Swierkosz-Lenart K, Dos Santos JFA, Elowe J, Clair AH, Bally JF, Riquier F, Bloch J, Draganski B, Clerc MT, Pozuelo Moyano B, von Gunten A, Mallet L. Therapies for obsessive-compulsive disorder: Current state of the art and perspectives for approaching treatment-resistant patients. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1065812. [PMID: 36873207 PMCID: PMC9978117 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1065812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Even though obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is one of the ten most disabling diseases according to the WHO, only 30-40% of patients suffering from OCD seek specialized treatment. The currently available psychotherapeutic and pharmacological approaches, when properly applied, prove ineffective in about 10% of cases. The use of neuromodulation techniques, especially Deep Brain Stimulation, is highly promising for these clinical pictures and knowledge in this domain is constantly evolving. The aim of this paper is to provide a summary of the current knowledge about OCD treatment, while also discussing the more recent proposals for defining resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Swierkosz-Lenart
- Department of Psychiatry, Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie de l’Age Avancé (SUPAA), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Prilly, Switzerland
| | | | - Julien Elowe
- Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, West Sector, Prangins, Switzerland
- Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, North Sector, Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Hélène Clair
- Sorbonne University, UPMC Paris 06 University, INSERM, CNRS, Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Épinière, Paris, France
| | - Julien F. Bally
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Service of Neurology, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Françoise Riquier
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Service of Neurosurgery, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jocelyne Bloch
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Service of Neurosurgery, Lausanne University Hospital (CHUV), University of Lausanne (UNIL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bogdan Draganski
- Laboratory for Research in Neuroimaging (LREN), Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Centre for Research in Neurosciences, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- Department of Neurology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Marie-Thérèse Clerc
- Department of Psychiatry, Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie de l’Age Avancé (SUPAA), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Prilly, Switzerland
| | - Beatriz Pozuelo Moyano
- Department of Psychiatry, Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie de l’Age Avancé (SUPAA), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Prilly, Switzerland
| | - Armin von Gunten
- Department of Psychiatry, Service Universitaire de Psychiatrie de l’Age Avancé (SUPAA), Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Prilly, Switzerland
| | - Luc Mallet
- Department of Mental Health and Psychiatry, Geneva University Hospital, Geneva, Switzerland
- Univ Paris-Est Créteil, DMU IMPACT, Département Médical-Universitaire de Psychiatrie et d’Addictologie, Hôpitaux Universitaires Henri Mondor - Albert Chenevier, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France
- Sorbonne Université, Institut du Cerveau - Paris Brain Institute - ICM, Inserm, CNRS, Paris, France
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Abstract
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) has a prevalence rate of 1-3% in the general population and has been ranked as one of the top ten leading causes of illness-related disability (American Psychiatric Association 2013; Kessler et al. 2005). OCD is characterized by persistent intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) (Leckman et al. 1997). There are various OCD-related disorders, including Tourette syndrome (TS), grooming disorders (e.g., skin-picking, trichotillomania), and autism spectrum disorders (ASD) that share considerable overlapping features with OCD (Browne et al. 2014). Although the neurobiological basis of OCD still remains obscure, neuroimaging studies in patients with OCD and OCD-related disorders have consistently identified hyperactivity in orbitofrontal cortex and striatum (Cerliani et al. 2015; Hou et al. 2014; Jung et al. 2017; Neuner et al. 2014). However, the cellular and synaptic abnormalities underlying this hyperactivity are unclear. The most prominent theory regarding the underlying mechanisms of OCD and OCD-related disorders is an increased excitation to inhibition (E/I) ratio due to increased glutamatergic excitation or reduced GABAergic inhibition (Albin and Mink 2006; Rubenstein and Merzenich 2003; Wu et al. 2012). A proper E/I ratio is achieved by factors expressed in neuron and glia. In astrocytes, both the glutamate transporter GLT1 and GABA transporter GAT-3 are critical for regulating the E/I balance (Aida et al. 2015; Aizawa et al. 2020; Boddum et al. 2016; Cui et al. 2014; Kersanté et al. 2013; Kiryk et al. 2008; Matos et al. 2018; Scimemi 2014; Sugimoto et al. 2018; Sugiyama et al. 2017; Tanaka et al. 1997; Zhao et al. 2018). Although astrocyte dysfunction has not been directly explored in OCD patients, several animal studies have found that astrocytes are involved in the pathophysiology of OCD. In this chapter, I highlight recent studies in which astrocyte dysfunction contributed to E/I imbalance, leading to pathological repetitive behaviors shared between patients with OCD, TS, and ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohichi Tanaka
- Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Department of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan.
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Bellia F, Vismara M, Annunzi E, Cifani C, Benatti B, Dell'Osso B, D'Addario C. Genetic and epigenetic architecture of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: In search of possible diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. J Psychiatr Res 2021; 137:554-571. [PMID: 33213890 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a prevalent and severe clinical condition whose hallmarks are excessive, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions). The onset of symptoms generally occurs during pre-adult life and typically affects subjects in different aspects of their life's, compromising social and professional relationships. Although robust evidence suggests a genetic component in the etiopathogenesis of OCD, the causes of the disorder are still not completely understood. It is thus of relevance to take into account how genes interact with environmental risk factors, thought to be mediated by epigenetic mechanisms. We here provide an overview of genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of OCD, focusing on the modulation of key central nervous system genes, in the attempt to suggest possible disease biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Bellia
- Faculty of Bioscience, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy
| | - Matteo Vismara
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Eugenia Annunzi
- Faculty of Bioscience, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy; Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, Gabriele D'Annunzio University, Chieti, Italy
| | - Carlo Cifani
- School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, Camerino, Italy
| | - Beatrice Benatti
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, University of Milan, Milano, Italy; CRC "Aldo Ravelli", University of Milan, Milano, Italy
| | - Bernardo Dell'Osso
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Luigi Sacco, University of Milan, Milano, Italy; CRC "Aldo Ravelli", University of Milan, Milano, Italy; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, CA, USA.
| | - Claudio D'Addario
- Faculty of Bioscience, University of Teramo, Teramo, Italy; Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Piantadosi SC, McClain LL, Klei L, Wang J, Chamberlain BL, Springer SA, Lewis DA, Devlin B, Ahmari SE. Transcriptome alterations are enriched for synapse-associated genes in the striatum of subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Transl Psychiatry 2021; 11:171. [PMID: 33723209 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-021-01290-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic and severe psychiatric disorder for which effective treatment options are limited. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies have consistently implicated the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and striatum in the pathophysiology of the disorder. Recent genetic evidence points to involvement of components of the excitatory synapse in the etiology of OCD. However, the transcriptional alterations that could link genetic risk to known structural and functional abnormalities remain mostly unknown. To assess potential transcriptional changes in the OFC and two striatal regions (caudate nucleus and nucleus accumbens) of OCD subjects relative to unaffected comparison subjects, we sequenced messenger RNA transcripts from these brain regions. In a joint analysis of all three regions, 904 transcripts were differentially expressed between 7 OCD versus 8 unaffected comparison subjects. Region-specific analyses highlighted a smaller number of differences, which concentrated in caudate and nucleus accumbens. Pathway analyses of the 904 differentially expressed transcripts showed enrichment for genes involved in synaptic signaling, with these synapse-associated genes displaying lower expression in OCD subjects relative to unaffected comparison subjects. Finally, we estimated that cell type fractions of medium spiny neurons were lower whereas vascular cells and astrocyte fractions were higher in tissue of OCD subjects. Together, these data provide the first unbiased examination of differentially expressed transcripts in both OFC and striatum of OCD subjects. These transcripts encoded synaptic proteins more often than expected by chance, and thus implicate the synapse as a vulnerable molecular compartment for OCD.
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Piantadosi SC, Chamberlain BL, Glausier JR, Lewis DA, Ahmari SE. Lower excitatory synaptic gene expression in orbitofrontal cortex and striatum in an initial study of subjects with obsessive compulsive disorder. Mol Psychiatry 2021; 26:986-998. [PMID: 31168067 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-019-0431-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a severe illness that affects 2-3% of people worldwide. OCD neuroimaging studies have consistently shown abnormal activity in brain regions involved in decision-making (orbitofrontal cortex [OFC]) and action selection (striatum). However, little is known regarding molecular changes that may contribute to abnormal function. We therefore examined expression of synaptic genes in post-mortem human brain samples of these regions from eight pairs of unaffected comparison and OCD subjects. Total grey matter tissue samples were obtained from medial OFC (BA11), lateral OFC (BA47), head of caudate, and nucleus accumbens (NAc). Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was then performed on a panel of transcripts encoding proteins related to excitatory synaptic structure, excitatory synaptic receptors/transporters, and GABA synapses. Relative to unaffected comparison subjects, OCD subjects had significantly lower levels of several transcripts related to excitatory signaling in both cortical and striatal regions. However, a majority of transcripts encoding excitatory synaptic proteins were lower in OFC but not significantly different in striatum of OCD subjects. Composite transcript level measures supported these findings by revealing that reductions in transcripts encoding excitatory synaptic structure proteins and excitatory synaptic receptors/transporters occurred primarily in OFC of OCD subjects. In contrast, transcripts associated with inhibitory synaptic neurotransmission showed minor differences between groups. The observed lower levels of multiple glutamatergic transcripts across both medial and lateral OFC may suggest an upstream causal event. Together, these data provide the first evidence of molecular abnormalities in brain regions consistently implicated in OCD human imaging studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sean C Piantadosi
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | | | - Jill R Glausier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - David A Lewis
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Susanne E Ahmari
- Center for Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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11
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Huang X, Liu J, Cong J, Zhang X. Association Between the SLC1A1 Glutamate Transporter Gene and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder in the Chinese Han Population. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2021; 17:347-354. [PMID: 33574671 PMCID: PMC7872936 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s281623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a common, serious and genetically related mental illness; the etiology of OCD has not yet reached a definitive conclusion. Multiple evidence suggests that the glutamatergic system plays a major role in the pathophysiology of OCD. However, subsequent studies on the glutamate transporter gene are not consistent. OCD is a heterogeneous disease. To resolve the complex genetic basis of OCD, division the disorder into different subphenotypes is an effective method for studying the pathogenesis of OCD. METHODS We recruited 438 OCD patients and 465 age- and sex-matched controls from a Chinese Han population. rs10491734, rs3780412, rs301434 and rs3087879 SNPs were genotyped by real-time TaqMan polymerase chain reaction, and the chi-squared test was used to compare allele and genotype frequencies of variants between the two groups. RESULTS The genotype of rs301434 was statistically significant in total patients with OCD and the controls. After grouping by age and gender, the genotype of rs301434 was statistically significant in early-onset OCD, late-onset OCD as well as male OCD, the allele and genotype of rs3780412 was associated with late-onset OCD. Haplotype analysis showed that four loci haplotypes (G-A-A-G and G-G-A-G) were associated with total OCD, (G-G-A-G) was associated with female OCD, (G-A-G-G) was associated with male OCD, (G-A-A-G and G-G-A-G) were associated with late-onset OCD. CONCLUSION This study provides suggestive evidence that SLC1A1 may be involved in the development of OCD in the Han population. However, these findings require further replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Huang
- Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Qingdao Mental Health Center, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinzhi Cong
- Health Convergence Media Communication Division, Shandong Health Publicity and Education Center, Jinan, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinhua Zhang
- Department of Psychology and Psychiatry, Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao, People's Republic of China
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12
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Al-Eitan LN, Al-Dalala IM, Elshammari AK, Khreisat WH, Nimiri AF, Alnaamneh AH, Aljamal HA, Alghamdi MA. Genetic Association of Epilepsy and Anti-Epileptic Drugs Treatment in Jordanian Patients. Pharmgenomics Pers Med 2020; 13:503-510. [PMID: 33116764 PMCID: PMC7584512 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s273125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the possible effects of single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within SLC1A1, SLC6A1, FAM131B, GPLD1, F2, GABRG2, GABRA1, and CACNG5 genes on response to anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) and the genetic predisposition of epilepsy in Jordanian patients. Patients and Methods A total of 299 healthy individuals and 296 pediatric patients from the Jordanian population were recruited. Blood samples are collected, and genotyping was performed using a custom platform array analysis. Results The SLC1A1 rs10815018 and FAM131B rs4236482 polymorphisms found to be associated with epilepsy susceptibility. Moreover, SLC1A1 rs10815018 and GPLD1 rs1126617 polymorphisms were associated with generalized epilepsy (GE), while FAM131B rs4236482 is associated with the focal phenotype. Regarding the therapeutic response, the genetic polymorphisms of FAM131B rs4236482, GABRA1 rs2279020, and CACNG5 rs740805 are conferred poor response (resistance) to AEDs. There was no linkage of GLPD1 haplotypes to epilepsy, its subtypes, and treatment responsiveness. Conclusion Our findings suggested that SLC1A1, FAM131B, and GPLD1 polymorphisms increasing the risk of generating epilepsy, while FAM131B, GABRA1, and CACNG5 variants may play a role in predicting drug response in patients with epilepsy (PWE).
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Affiliation(s)
- Laith N Al-Eitan
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan.,Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Islam M Al-Dalala
- Department of Blood Banking, King Hussein Medical Centre, Royal Medical Services, Amman, Jordan
| | - Afrah K Elshammari
- Queen Rania Hospital for Children, King Hussein Medical Center, Royal Medical Services, Amman, Jordan
| | - Wael H Khreisat
- Queen Rania Hospital for Children, King Hussein Medical Center, Royal Medical Services, Amman, Jordan
| | - Aseel F Nimiri
- Queen Rania Hospital for Children, King Hussein Medical Center, Royal Medical Services, Amman, Jordan
| | - Adan H Alnaamneh
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Hanan A Aljamal
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Mansour A Alghamdi
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia.,Genomics and Personalized Medicine Unit, College of Medicine, King Khalid University, Abha 61421, Saudi Arabia
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13
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Dallaspezia S, Mazza M, Lorenzi C, Benedetti F, Smeraldi E. A single nucleotide polymorphism in SLC1A1 gene is associated with age of onset of obsessive-compulsive disorder. Eur Psychiatry 2020; 29:301-3. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Revised: 02/12/2014] [Accepted: 02/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractDifferent genetic polymorphisms in the SLC1A1 have been shown to be associated with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Rs301430 is a T/C functional polymorphism affecting the gene expression and extrasynaptic glutamate concentration.We observed that Rs301430 influence age at onset in obsessive-compulsive disorder.
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14
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Alemany-Navarro M, Cruz R, Real E, Segalàs C, Bertolín S, Baenas I, Domènech L, Rabionet R, Carracedo Á, Menchón JM, Alonso P. Exploring genetic variants in obsessive compulsive disorder severity: A GWAS approach. J Affect Disord 2020; 267:23-32. [PMID: 32063569 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The severity of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) varies significantly among probands. No study has specifically investigated the genetic base of OCD severity. A previous study from our group found an OCD polygenic risk score to predict pre- and post-treatment severity. This study explores the genomic bases of OCD severity. METHODS We administered the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) to 401 patients at their first visit to our clinic to measure their OCD severity. Genotyping data was collected by using the Infinium PsychArray-24 BeadChip kit (Illumina). We analyzed genetic association with OCD severity in a linear regression analysis at single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)- and gene-levels, this last also considering rare variants. Enrichment analyses were performed from gene-based analyses' results. RESULTS No SNP reached significant association (p < 10-8) with the YBOCS. Six markers showed suggestive association (p < 10-5). The top SNP was an intergenic variant in chromosome 2: rs7578149 (p < 1.89 × 10-6), located in a region suggestively associated with MDD. Linkage disequilibrium was found for two clusters of SNPs located between SLC16A14 and SP110 in chromosome 2, all of them forming one peak of association. Enrichment analyses revealed OCD genes to be associated with porin activity (FDR = 0.01) and transmembrane structure (FDR = 0.04). LIMITATIONS The size of the sample and the transversal nature of the severity measure are limitations of this study. CONCLUSION This study contributes to better characterize OCD at an individual level, helping to know more about the prognosis of the disorder and develop more individualized treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Alemany-Navarro
- Institut d' Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Raquel Cruz
- Grupo de Medicina Xenómica, CIBERER, Centre for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, CIMUS-, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eva Real
- Institut d' Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cinto Segalàs
- Institut d' Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Bertolín
- OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isabel Baenas
- OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Domènech
- Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona 08003, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raquel Rabionet
- Institut de Recerca Sant Joan de Déu, Esplugues de Llobregat, Spain; Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), CIBERER, and Dept. Genetics, Microbiology & statistics, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ángel Carracedo
- Grupo de Medicina Xenómica, CIBERER, Centre for Research in Molecular Medicine and Chronic Diseases, CIMUS-, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela, Spain; Fundación Pública Galega de Medicina Xenómica, SERGAS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago de Compostela (IDIS), Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jose M Menchón
- Institut d' Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación en Red de Salud Mental), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain
| | - Pino Alonso
- OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain; Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación en Red de Salud Mental), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain
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15
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Zheng H, Yang W, Zhang B, Hua G, Wang S, Jia F, Guo G, Wang W, Quan D. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamate of comorbid skin-picking disorder in adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Affect Disord 2020; 265:193-199. [PMID: 32090741 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is characterized by hyperactivity in a network of forebrain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). Convergent evidence suggests that glutamatergic dysfunction may contribute to the disorder. Skin picking disorder (SPD) was listed as one of the obsessive-compulsive and related disorders, which is often comorbid with OCD and share overlapping phenomenology and pathophysiology. However, potential confounding effects between the two diagnostic effects on neurotransmitter levels remain largely unexamined. METHODS We examined the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) glutamate and other neurochemicals in 62 subjects using a single-voxel acquisition 1H MRS at 3Tesla; of these, 47 subjects yielded usable measurements of both glutamate and glutamine and were included in the analysis (17 medicated with OCD alone, 13 medicated with comorbid OCD + SPD, 17 healthy control). RESULTS OCD with comorbid SPD showed significantly lower pACC glutamate than in patients without SPD (p = 0.001) or control subjects (p = 0.035). OCD without SPD subjects showed pACC glutamate levels indistinguishable from controls (p = 0.501). In the OCD with SPD subjects, glutamate was correlated with Y-BOCS total score in female patients (n = 9, r = 0.69, p = 0.041). LIMITATIONS The main limitation of the study was the cross-sectional data. Our patients were on SSRI medication which may have modified the effect of SPD and OCD interaction on glutamate activity. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that alterations of the glutamatergic system may play an important role in the pathophysiology of a subgroup of OCD and reduced pACC glutamate may be a biomarker of a distinct subset of OCD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huirong Zheng
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China.
| | - Wanqun Yang
- Department of Radiology, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area Center for, Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guanmin Hua
- Guangzhou Yuexiu District Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shibin Wang
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fujun Jia
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guangquan Guo
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenjing Wang
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongming Quan
- Guangdong Mental Health Center, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Affliated School of Medicine of South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
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16
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Escobar AP, Wendland JR, Chávez AE, Moya PR. The Neuronal Glutamate Transporter EAAT3 in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1362. [PMID: 31803055 PMCID: PMC6872633 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/28/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a heterogeneous psychiatric disorder affecting 1%–3% of the population worldwide. About half of OCD afflicted individuals do not respond to currently available pharmacotherapy, which is mainly based on serotonin reuptake inhibition. Therefore, there is a critical need to search novel and improved therapeutic targets to treat this devastating disorder. In recent years, accumulating evidence has supported the glutamatergic hypothesis of OCD, and particularly pointing a potential role for the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAT3. This mini-review summarizes recent findings regarding the neurobiological basis of OCD, with an emphasis on the glutamatergic neurotransmission and EAAT3 as a key player in OCD etiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica P Escobar
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso CINV, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Jens R Wendland
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso CINV, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Andrés E Chávez
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso CINV, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile
| | - Pablo R Moya
- Centro Interdisciplinario de Neurociencia de Valparaíso CINV, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaíso, Chile.,Instituto de Fisiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Valparaíso, Valparaiso, Chile
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17
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Wu P, Bjørn-Yoshimoto WE, Staudt M, Jensen AA, Bunch L. Identification and Structure-Activity Relationship Study of Imidazo[1,2- a]pyridine-3-amines as First Selective Inhibitors of Excitatory Amino Acid Transporter Subtype 3 (EAAT3). ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:4414-4429. [PMID: 31573179 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.9b00447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In the present study, screening of a library of 49,087 compounds at the excitatory amino acid transporter subtype 3 (EAAT3) led to the identification of 2-(furan-2-yl)-8-methyl-N-(o-tolyl)imidazo[1,2-a]pyridin-3-amine (3a) which showed a >20-fold preference for inhibition of EAAT3 (IC50 = 13 μM) over EAAT1,2,4 (EAAT1: IC50 ∼ 250 μM; EAAT2,4: IC50 > 250 μM). It was shown that a small lipophilic substituent (methyl or bromine) at the 7- and/or 8-position was essential for activity. Furthermore, the substitution pattern of the o-tolyl group (compound 5b) and the chemical nature of the substituent in the 2-position (compound 7b) were shown to be essential for the selectivity toward EAAT3 over EAAT1,2. The most prominent analogues to come out of this study are 3a and 3e that display ∼35-fold selectivity for EAAT3 (IC50 = 7.2 μM) over EAAT1,2,4 (IC50 ∼ 250 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wu
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Walden E. Bjørn-Yoshimoto
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Markus Staudt
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Anders A. Jensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
| | - Lennart Bunch
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen DK-2100, Denmark
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18
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Marazziti D, Albert U, Mucci F, Piccinni A. The Glutamate and the Immune Systems: New Targets for the Pharmacological Treatment of OCD. Curr Med Chem 2019; 25:5731-5738. [PMID: 29119912 DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666171108152035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the last decades the pharmacological treatment of obsessivecompulsive disorder (OCD) has been significantly promoted by the effectiveness of selective serotonin (5-HT) reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and the subsequent development of the 5-HT hypothesis of OCD. However, since a large majority of patients (between 40% and 60 %) do not respond to SSRIs or strategies based on the modulation of the 5-HT system, it is now essential to search for other possible therapeutic targets. AIMS The aim of this paper was to review current literature through a PubMed and Google Scholar search of novel hypotheses and related compounds for the treatment of OCD, with a special focus on the glutammate and the immune systems. DISCUSSION The literature indicates that glutamate, the main excitatory neurotransmitter, might play an important role in the pathophysiology of OCD. In addition, a series of clinical studies also supports the potential efficacy of drugs modulating the glutamate system. The role of the immune system alterations in OCD in both children and adults needs to be more deeply elucidated. In children, a subtype of OCD has been widely described resulting from infections driven by group A streptococcus β-hemolitic and belonging to the so-called "pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus" (PANDAS). In adults, available findings are meager and controversial, although interesting. CONCLUSION The glutamate and the immune systems represent two intriguing topics of research that hold promise for the development of open novel treatment strategies in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donatella Marazziti
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Umberto Albert
- Rita Levi Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Italy
| | - Federico Mucci
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Armando Piccinni
- Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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19
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de Salles Andrade JB, Ferreira FM, Suo C, Yücel M, Frydman I, Monteiro M, Vigne P, Fontenelle LF, Tovar-Moll F. An MRI Study of the Metabolic and Structural Abnormalities in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:186. [PMID: 31333428 PMCID: PMC6620433 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric illness characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. Its pathophysiology is still not well understood but it is known that the cortico-striatal-thalamic-cortical (CSTC) circuitry plays an important role. Here, we used a multi-method MRI approach combining proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (H1-MRS) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) techniques to investigate both the metabolic and the microstructural white matter (WM) changes of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in OCD patients as compared to healthy controls. Twenty-three OCD patients and 21 age-, sex-, and education-matched healthy volunteers participated in the study. Our 1H-MRS findings show increased levels of Glx in ACC in OCD. Further, significantly lower fractional anisotropy (FA) values were observed in OCD patients’ left cingulate bundle (CB) as compared to healthy controls. Finally, there was a negative correlation between FA in the left CB and level of obsessions, as well as the duration of the illness. Our findings reinforce the involvement of CSTC bundles in pathophysiology of OCD, pointing to a specific role of glutamate (glutamine) and WM integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana B de Salles Andrade
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICB), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Chao Suo
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Murat Yücel
- Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Ilana Frydman
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Obsessive, Compulsive, and Anxiety Spectrum Research Program, Institute of Psychiatry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Marina Monteiro
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Paula Vigne
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Obsessive, Compulsive, and Anxiety Spectrum Research Program, Institute of Psychiatry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leonardo F Fontenelle
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health and School of Psychological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia.,Obsessive, Compulsive, and Anxiety Spectrum Research Program, Institute of Psychiatry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernanda Tovar-Moll
- D'Or Institute for Research and Education (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Institute of Biomedical Sciences (ICB), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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20
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Alemany-Navarro M, Costas J, Real E, Segalàs C, Bertolín S, Domènech L, Rabionet R, Carracedo Á, Menchón JM, Alonso P. Do polygenic risk and stressful life events predict pharmacological treatment response in obsessive compulsive disorder? A gene-environment interaction approach. Transl Psychiatry 2019; 9:70. [PMID: 30718812 PMCID: PMC6362161 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-019-0410-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 08/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The rate of response to pharmacological treatment in Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) oscillates between 40 and 70%. Genetic and environmental factors have been associated with treatment response in OCD. This study analyzes the predictive ability of a polygenic risk score (PRS) built from OCD-risk variants, for treatment response in OCD, and the modulation role of stressful life events (SLEs) at the onset of the disorder. PRSs were calculated for a sample of 103 patients. Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (YBOCS) scores were obtained before and after a 12-week treatment. Regression analyses were performed to analyze the influence of the PRS and SLEs at onset on treatment response. PRS did not predict treatment response. The best predictive model for post-treatment YBOCS (post YBOCS) included basal YBOCS and age. PRS appeared as a predictor for basal and post YBOCS. SLEs at onset were not a predictor for treatment response when included in the regression model. No evidence for PRS predictive ability for treatment response was found. The best predictor for treatment response was age, agreeing with previous literature specific for SRI treatment. Suggestions are made on the possible role of neuroplasticity as a mediator on this association. PRS significantly predicted OCD severity independent on pharmacological treatment. SLE at onset modulation role was not evidenced. Further research is needed to elucidate the genetic and environmental bases of treatment response in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Alemany-Navarro
- Institut d' Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain. .,OCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain.
| | - Javier Costas
- 0000 0000 9403 4738grid.420359.9Grupo de Xenética Psiquiátrica, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela, Servizo Galego de Saúde, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Eva Real
- Institut d’ Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 8836 0780grid.411129.eOCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Cinto Segalàs
- Institut d’ Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 8836 0780grid.411129.eOCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Sara Bertolín
- 0000 0000 8836 0780grid.411129.eOCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Laura Domènech
- grid.473715.3Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona, 08003 Spain ,0000 0001 2172 2676grid.5612.0Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain ,CIBER in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raquel Rabionet
- grid.473715.3Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Dr. Aiguader 88, Barcelona, 08003 Spain ,0000 0001 2172 2676grid.5612.0Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain ,CIBER in Epidemiology and Public Health (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ángel Carracedo
- 0000 0000 9403 4738grid.420359.9Grupo de Xenética Psiquiátrica, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago de Compostela, Servizo Galego de Saúde, Santiago de Compostela, Spain ,0000000109410645grid.11794.3aGrupo de Medicina Xenómica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Centro Nacional de Genotipado - Instituto Carlos III, Santiago de Compostela, Spain ,0000 0004 1791 1185grid.452372.5Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Jose M. Menchón
- Institut d’ Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 8836 0780grid.411129.eOCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 9314 1427grid.413448.eCIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación en Red de Salud Mental), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain ,0000 0004 1937 0247grid.5841.8Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pino Alonso
- Institut d’ Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 8836 0780grid.411129.eOCD Clinical and Research Unit, Psychiatry Department, Hospital Universitari de Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (Barcelona), Spain ,0000 0000 9314 1427grid.413448.eCIBERSAM (Centro de Investigación en Red de Salud Mental), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain ,0000 0004 1937 0247grid.5841.8Department of Clinical Sciences, Bellvitge Campus, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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de Salles Andrade JB, Giori IG, Melo-Felippe FB, Vieira-Fonseca T, Fontenelle LF, Kohlrausch FB. Glutamate transporter gene polymorphisms and obsessive-compulsive disorder: A case-control association study. J Clin Neurosci 2019; 62:53-59. [PMID: 30661718 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2019.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The etiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is largely unknown, but family, twin, neuroimaging, and pharmacological studies suggest that glutamatergic system plays a significant role on its underlying pathophysiology. We performed an association analysis of six Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) within SLC1A1 gene (rs12682807, rs2075627, rs3780412, rs301443, rs301430, rs301434) in a group of 199 patients and 200 healthy controls. Symptom profiles were evaluated using the Florida Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory (FOCI) and the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory-Revised (OCI-R). SNPs were analyzed by Taqman® methodology (Thermo Fisher, Brazil). The genotype distributions were in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The A-A-G (rs301434-rs3780412-rs301443) haplotype was twice as common in OCD as in controls (P = 0.02). We also found significant differences between male patients and controls for rs301443 in a dominant model (P = 0.04) and a protective effect of GG genotype of rs2072657 in women (P = 0.02). Regarding clinical characteristics, the G-A (rs301434-rs3780412) haplotype was almost twice more common in patients with vs. without hoarding (P = 0.04). Further analyses showed significant associations between hoarding and rs301434 (P = 0.04) and rs3780412 (P = 0.04) in women, both in a dominant model. A dominant effect was also observed on ordering dimension for rs301434 (P = 0.01, in women) and rs301443 (P = 0.04). Finally, the rs2072657 showed a recessive effect on neutralization (P = 0.04) and checking (P = 0.03, in men). These preliminary results demonstrated that the SLC1A1 may contribute to some extent the susceptibility to OCD and its symptoms. However, additional studies are still needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana B de Salles Andrade
- Programa de Transtornos Obsessivo-Compulsivos e de Ansiedade, Instituto de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Isabele G Giori
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, Brazil
| | - Fernanda B Melo-Felippe
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, Brazil
| | - Tamiris Vieira-Fonseca
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, Brazil
| | - Leonardo F Fontenelle
- Programa de Transtornos Obsessivo-Compulsivos e de Ansiedade, Instituto de Psiquiatria, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Instituto D'Or de Pesquisa e Ensino (IDOR), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; School of Psychological Sciences, MONASH University, Australia
| | - Fabiana B Kohlrausch
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Niterói, Brazil.
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Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) has been seen to run in families and genetics help to understand its heritability. In this review, we summarize older studies which focused on establishing the familial nature of OCD, including its various dimensions of symptoms, and we focus on recent findings from studies using both the candidate gene approach and genome-wide association study (GWAS) approach. The family studies and twin studies establish the heritability of OCD. Candidate gene approaches have implicated genes in the serotonergic, glutamatergic, and dopaminergic pathways. GWAS has not produced significant results possibly due to the small sample size. Newer techniques such as gene expression studies in brain tissue, stem cell technology, and epigenetic studies may shed more light on the complex genetic basis of OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishek Purty
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
| | - Gerald Nestadt
- Department of Behavioral Science and Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jack F. Samuels
- Department of Behavioral Science and Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Biju Viswanath
- Department of Psychiatry, National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
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23
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Abdolhosseinzadeh S, Sina M, Ahmadiani A, Asadi S, Shams J. Genetic and pharmacogenetic study of glutamate transporter (SLC1A1) in Iranian patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Pharm Ther 2018; 44:39-48. [PMID: 30315580 DOI: 10.1111/jcpt.12766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2018] [Revised: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic neuropsychiatric disorder. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are the first line of medication for OCD treatment; however, 40%-60% of patients with OCD do not respond to SSRIs adequately. There are growing pieces of evidence which suggest a significant role for the glutamatergic system in the genesis of OCD and its consequent treatment. In the present study, we aimed to assess the association of SLC1A1 polymorphisms (rs301430, rs2228622 and rs3780413) with OCD and its clinical characteristics, as well as the importance of these SNPs in the response of OCD patients to SSRI pharmacotherapy. METHODS Sample study consisted of 243 OCD cases and 221 control subjects. Patients were treated 12 weeks with fluvoxamine (daily dose: 150-300 mg). Based on the reduction in obsessive and compulsive severity scores using Y-BOCS severity scale, patients were classified as responders, non-responders and refractory. A total of 239, 228 and 215 patients were genotyped for rs301430, rs2228622 and rs3780413, respectively, by the means of PCR-RFLP. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION No association was detected between SLC1A1 SNPs and OCD, except an association between the familial form of the disease in males with rs2228622 (P = 0.033). The results of pharmacogenetic studies revealed the associations of two SLC1A1 SNPs, rs2228622 (P = 0.031) and rs3780413 (P = 0.008), with treatment response. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION Results of the current study suggest a role for the glutamate transporter in OCD treatment response with SSRIs which should encourage researchers to further investigate the importance of glutamate transporter in OCD pharmacogenetics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marzie Sina
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abolhassan Ahmadiani
- Neuroscience Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sareh Asadi
- NeuroBiology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jamal Shams
- Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Science, Tehran, Iran
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24
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Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is present in 1.5-2.5% of the population and can result in substantial lifelong disability. It is characterized by intrusive thoughts, sensations, and urges and by repetitive behaviors that are difficult to control despite, in most cases, preserved insight as to their excessive or irrational nature. The causes and underlying pathophysiology of OCD are not well understood, which has limited the development of new treatments and interventions. Despite evidence for a substantial genetic contribution to disease risk, identification and replication of genetic variants associated with OCD have been challenging. Decades of candidate gene association studies have provided little insight. They are now being supplanted by modern genomewide approaches to discover both common and rare sequence and structural variants. Studies to date suggest potential novel therapeutic avenues such as modulators of glutamatergic and immune pathways; however, individual genetic findings are not yet statistically robust or replicated. Further efforts are clearly needed to identify specific risk variants and to confirm vulnerable pathways by studying much larger cohorts of patients with comprehensive variant discovery approaches. Mouse knockout models have already made notable inroads into our understanding of OCD pathology; their utility will only increase as specific risk alleles are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas V Fernandez
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States.
| | - James F Leckman
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Department of Psychology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States; Integrated Neuroscience Research Program, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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25
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Underhill SM, Ingram SL, Ahmari SE, Veenstra-VanderWeele J, Amara SG. Neuronal excitatory amino acid transporter EAAT3: Emerging functions in health and disease. Neurochem Int 2018; 123:69-76. [PMID: 29800605 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2018.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne M Underhill
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Susan L Ingram
- Department of Neurological Surgery, Oregon Health & Science University (OHSU), 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Portland, OR 97239, USA
| | - Susanne E Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, 450 Technology Drive, Room 227, Pittsburgh, PA 15219, USA
| | - Jeremy Veenstra-VanderWeele
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, Mail Unit 78, New York, NY, 10032, USA
| | - Susan G Amara
- National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Mental Health, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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26
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Kim HW, Kang JI, Hwang EH, Kim SJ. Association between glutamate transporter gene polymorphisms and obsessive-compulsive disorder/trait empathy in a Korean population. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0190593. [PMID: 29304071 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0190593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that the glutamatergic system plays a major role in the pathophysiology of obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and empathic processing. Particularly, genetic influence of glutamate transporter gene (SLC1A1) on OCD has been frequently replicated in previous studies, but several studies did not replicate the result. Therefore, we aimed to replicate the associations between the SLC1A1 and OCD in a Korean population. In addition, we investigated the influence of SLC1A1 on trait empathy, impairments in which are characteristic of OCD. Six single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) of SLC1A1 were genotyped in 615 patients with OCD and 508 healthy controls. The interpersonal reactivity index (IRI)—which consists of four subscales (perspective taking, PT; fantasy seeking, FS; empathic concern, EC; personal distress, PD)—was assessed from 277 patients with OCD and 395 controls. There were no significant associations between OCD and SNPs or haplotypes of SLC1A1. Patients with OCD exhibited significantly lower PT and higher PD scores than controls. The C-T-G haplotype at rs301430-rs301434-rs3087879 of SLC1A1 was significantly associated with higher PD scores after adjusted for age, sex, and OCD status. Our results suggest that six common SNPs of SLC1A1 may not contribute to the development of OCD, but may contribute to certain aspect of trait empathy such as personal distress. However, insufficient sample size and limited number of SLC1A1 SNPs may have reduced the likelihood of detecting significant associations. Therefore, further studies with larger sample size and more tag SNPs of the SLC1A1 gene were warranted.
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27
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Abdulkadir M, Londono D, Gordon D, Fernandez TV, Brown LW, Cheon KA, Coffey BJ, Elzerman L, Fremer C, Fründt O, Garcia-Delgar B, Gilbert DL, Grice DE, Hedderly T, Heyman I, Hong HJ, Huyser C, Ibanez-Gomez L, Jakubovski E, Kim YK, Kim YS, Koh YJ, Kook S, Kuperman S, Leventhal B, Ludolph AG, Madruga-Garrido M, Maras A, Mir P, Morer A, Müller-Vahl K, Münchau A, Murphy TL, Plessen KJ, Roessner V, Shin EY, Song DH, Song J, Tübing J, van den Ban E, Visscher F, Wanderer S, Woods M, Zinner SH, King RA, Tischfield JA, Heiman GA, Hoekstra PJ, Dietrich A. Investigation of previously implicated genetic variants in chronic tic disorders: a transmission disequilibrium test approach. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2018; 268:301-16. [PMID: 28555406 DOI: 10.1007/s00406-017-0808-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies in Tourette syndrome (TS) are characterized by scattered and poorly replicated findings. We aimed to replicate findings from candidate gene and genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Our cohort included 465 probands with chronic tic disorder (93% TS) and both parents from 412 families (some probands were siblings). We assessed 75 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 465 parent-child trios; 117 additional SNPs in 211 trios; and 4 additional SNPs in 254 trios. We performed SNP and gene-based transmission disequilibrium tests and compared nominally significant SNP results with those from a large independent case-control cohort. After quality control 71 SNPs were available in 371 trios; 112 SNPs in 179 trios; and 3 SNPs in 192 trios. 17 were candidate SNPs implicated in TS and 2 were implicated in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD); 142 were tagging SNPs from eight monoamine neurotransmitter-related genes (including dopamine and serotonin); 10 were top SNPs from TS GWAS; and 13 top SNPs from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, OCD, or ASD GWAS. None of the SNPs or genes reached significance after adjustment for multiple testing. We observed nominal significance for the candidate SNPs rs3744161 (TBCD) and rs4565946 (TPH2) and for five tagging SNPs; none of these showed significance in the independent cohort. Also, SLC1A1 in our gene-based analysis and two TS GWAS SNPs showed nominal significance, rs11603305 (intergenic) and rs621942 (PICALM). We found no convincing support for previously implicated genetic polymorphisms. Targeted re-sequencing should fully appreciate the relevance of candidate genes.
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Bellini S, Fleming KE, De M, McCauley JP, Petroccione MA, D'Brant LY, Tkachenko A, Kwon S, Jones LA, Scimemi A. Neuronal Glutamate Transporters Control Dopaminergic Signaling and Compulsive Behaviors. J Neurosci 2018; 38:937-61. [PMID: 29229708 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1906-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate on the contribution of the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1 to the onset of compulsive behaviors. Here, we used behavioral, electrophysiological, molecular, and viral approaches in male and female mice to identify the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which EAAC1 controls the execution of repeated motor behaviors. Our findings show that, in the striatum, a brain region implicated with movement execution, EAAC1 limits group I metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluRI) activation, facilitates D1 dopamine receptor (D1R) expression, and ensures long-term synaptic plasticity. Blocking mGluRI in slices from mice lacking EAAC1 restores D1R expression and synaptic plasticity. Conversely, activation of intracellular signaling pathways coupled to mGluRI in D1R-containing striatal neurons of mice expressing EAAC1 leads to reduced D1R protein level and increased stereotyped movement execution. These findings identify new molecular mechanisms by which EAAC1 can shape glutamatergic and dopaminergic signals and control repeated movement execution.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Genetic studies implicate Slc1a1, a gene encoding the neuronal glutamate transporter EAAC1, with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). EAAC1 is abundantly expressed in the striatum, a brain region that is hyperactive in OCD. What remains unknown is how EAAC1 shapes synaptic function in the striatum. Our findings show that EAAC1 limits activation of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRIs) in the striatum and, by doing so, promotes D1 dopamine receptor (D1R) expression. Targeted activation of signaling cascades coupled to mGluRIs in mice expressing EAAC1 reduces D1R expression and triggers repeated motor behaviors. These findings provide new information on the molecular basis of OCD and suggest new avenues for its treatment.
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Rajendram R, Kronenberg S, Burton CL, Arnold PD. Glutamate Genetics in Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Review. J Can Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2017; 26:205-213. [PMID: 29056983 PMCID: PMC5642460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is common and debilitating with patients exhibiting persistent intrusive thoughts (obsessions), repetitive ritualistic behaviours (compulsions) and anxiety. While it is known that OCD is highly heritable, the specific genetic risk factors for OCD are still largely unknown. The etiology of OCD has also not been fully elucidated but there is growing evidence that glutamate signaling dysfunction in the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuitry plays a role in its pathogenesis. METHODS We conducted a focused review of recent literature on the role of glutamate genes in OCD. RESULTS There have been several recent discoveries in the SAPAP (DLGAP) family, SLC1A1, and GRIN/GRIK families of proteins related to OCD. CONCLUSION There is growing evidence supporting a role for genetic variation leading to dysfunctional glutamate signaling in OCD. Based on this new evidence we hypothesize that sustained glutamatergic neurotransmission in key areas of the brain may be contributing to the etiology of OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sefi Kronenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario
- Department of Psychiatry, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario
| | - Christie L. Burton
- Genetics & Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children; Toronto, Ontario
| | - Paul D. Arnold
- Genetics & Genome Biology, The Hospital for Sick Children; Toronto, Ontario
- Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research & Education, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta
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Afshari P, Yao WD, Middleton FA. Reduced Slc1a1 expression is associated with neuroinflammation and impaired sensorimotor gating and cognitive performance in mice: Implications for schizophrenia. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0183854. [PMID: 28886095 PMCID: PMC5590851 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0183854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported a 84-Kb hemi-deletion copy number variant at the SLC1A1 gene locus that reduces its expression and appeared causally linked to schizophrenia. In this report, we characterize the in vivo and in vitro consequences of reduced expression of Slc1a1 in mice. Heterozygous (HET) Slc1a1+/- mice, which more closely model the hemi-deletion we found in human subjects, were examined in a series of behavioral, anatomical and biochemical assays. Knockout (KO) mice were also included in the behavioral studies for comparative purposes. Both HET and KO mice exhibited evidence of increased anxiety-like behavior, impaired working memory, decreased exploratory activity and impaired sensorimotor gating, but no changes in overall locomotor activity. The magnitude of changes was approximately equivalent in the HET and KO mice suggesting a dominant effect of the haploinsufficiency. Behavioral changes in the HET mice were accompanied by reduced thickness of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Whole transcriptome RNA-Seq analysis detected expression changes of genes and pathways involved in cytokine signaling and synaptic functions in both brain and blood. Moreover, the brains of Slc1a1+/- mice displayed elevated levels of oxidized glutathione, a trend for increased oxidative DNA damage, and significantly increased levels of cytokines. This latter finding was further supported by SLC1A1 knockdown and overexpression studies in differentiated human neuroblastoma cells, which led to decreased or increased cytokine expression, respectively. Taken together, our results suggest that partial loss of the Slc1a1 gene in mice causes haploinsufficiency associated with behavioral, histological and biochemical changes that reflect an altered redox state and may promote the expression of behavioral features and inflammatory states consistent with those observed in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parisa Afshari
- Department of Neuroscience & Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY United States of America
| | - Wei-Dong Yao
- Department of Neuroscience & Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY United States of America.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States of America
| | - Frank A Middleton
- Department of Neuroscience & Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY United States of America.,Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States of America.,Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, United States of America
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31
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Zike ID, Chohan MO, Kopelman JM, Krasnow EN, Flicker D, Nautiyal KM, Bubser M, Kellendonk C, Jones CK, Stanwood G, Tanaka KF, Moore H, Ahmari SE, Veenstra-VanderWeele J. OCD candidate gene SLC1A1/EAAT3 impacts basal ganglia-mediated activity and stereotypic behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:5719-24. [PMID: 28507136 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1701736114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic, disabling condition with inadequate treatment options that leave most patients with substantial residual symptoms. Structural, neurochemical, and behavioral findings point to a significant role for basal ganglia circuits and for the glutamate system in OCD. Genetic linkage and association studies in OCD point to SLC1A1, which encodes the neuronal glutamate/aspartate/cysteine transporter excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3)/excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAC1). However, no previous studies have investigated EAAT3 in basal ganglia circuits or in relation to OCD-related behavior. Here, we report a model of Slc1a1 loss based on an excisable STOP cassette that yields successful ablation of EAAT3 expression and function. Using amphetamine as a probe, we found that EAAT3 loss prevents expected increases in (i) locomotor activity, (ii) stereotypy, and (iii) immediate early gene induction in the dorsal striatum following amphetamine administration. Further, Slc1a1-STOP mice showed diminished grooming in an SKF-38393 challenge experiment, a pharmacologic model of OCD-like grooming behavior. This reduced grooming is accompanied by reduced dopamine D1 receptor binding in the dorsal striatum of Slc1a1-STOP mice. Slc1a1-STOP mice also exhibit reduced extracellular dopamine concentrations in the dorsal striatum both at baseline and following amphetamine challenge. Viral-mediated restoration of Slc1a1/EAAT3 expression in the midbrain but not in the striatum results in partial rescue of amphetamine-induced locomotion and stereotypy in Slc1a1-STOP mice, consistent with an impact of EAAT3 loss on presynaptic dopaminergic function. Collectively, these findings indicate that the most consistently associated OCD candidate gene impacts basal ganglia-dependent repetitive behaviors.
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Karan KR, Satishchandra P, Sinha S, Anand A. Rare SLC1A1 variants in hot water epilepsy. Hum Genet 2017; 136:693-703. [DOI: 10.1007/s00439-017-1778-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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33
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Zike I, Xu T, Hong N, Veenstra-VanderWeele J. Rodent models of obsessive compulsive disorder: Evaluating validity to interpret emerging neurobiology. Neuroscience 2017; 345:256-73. [PMID: 27646291 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2016] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder with unknown molecular underpinnings. Identification of genetic and non-genetic risk factors has largely been elusive, primarily because of a lack of power. In contrast, neuroimaging has consistently implicated the cortico-striatal-thalamo-cortical circuits in OCD. Pharmacological treatment studies also show specificity, with consistent response of OCD symptoms to chronic treatment with serotonin reuptake inhibitors; although most patients are left with residual impairment. In theory, animal models could provide a bridge from the neuroimaging and pharmacology data to an understanding of pathophysiology at the cellular and molecular level. Several mouse models have been proposed using genetic, immunological, pharmacological, and optogenetic tools. These experimental model systems allow testing of hypotheses about the origins of compulsive behavior. Several models have generated behavior that appears compulsive-like, particularly excessive grooming, and some have demonstrated response to chronic serotonin reuptake inhibitors, establishing both face validity and predictive validity. Construct validity is more difficult to establish in the context of a limited understanding of OCD risk factors. Our current models may help us to dissect the circuits and molecular pathways that can elicit OCD-relevant behavior in rodents. We can hope that this growing understanding, coupled with developing technology, will prepare us when robust OCD risk factors are better understood.
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34
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Bjørn-Yoshimoto WE, Underhill SM. The importance of the excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3). Neurochem Int 2016; 98:4-18. [PMID: 27233497 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2015] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3) is fairly ubiquitously expressed in the brain, though it does not necessarily maintain the same function everywhere. It is important in maintaining low local concentrations of glutamate, where its predominant post-synaptic localization can buffer nearby glutamate receptors and modulate excitatory neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. It is also the main neuronal cysteine uptake system acting as the rate-limiting factor for the synthesis of glutathione, a potent antioxidant, in EAAT3 expressing neurons, while on GABAergic neurons, it is important in supplying glutamate as a precursor for GABA synthesis. Several diseases implicate EAAT3, and modulation of this transporter could prove a useful therapeutic approach. Regulation of EAAT3 could be targeted at several points for functional modulation, including the level of transcription, trafficking and direct pharmacological modulation, and indeed, compounds and experimental treatments have been identified that regulate EAAT3 function at different stages, which together with observations of EAAT3 regulation in patients is giving us insight into the endogenous function of this transporter, as well as the consequences of altered function. This review summarizes work done on elucidating the role and regulation of EAAT3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walden E Bjørn-Yoshimoto
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Universitetsparken 2, 2100 København Ø, Denmark
| | - Suzanne M Underhill
- National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, 35 Convent Drive Room 3A: 210 MSC3742, Bethesda, MD 20892-3742, USA.
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Khedr EM, Elbeh KAM, Elserogy Y, Khalifa HE, Ahmed MA, Hafez MH, Ali AM, Elfetoh NA. Motor cortical excitability in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Transcranial magnetic stimulation study. Neurophysiol Clin 2016; 46:135-43. [PMID: 27016878 DOI: 10.1016/j.neucli.2016.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2015] [Revised: 01/28/2016] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a non-invasive method of stimulating the brain that is increasingly being used in neuropsychiatric research. Previous work has suggested that the pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) may involve dysfunction of excitatory and/or inhibitory brain function. This study aimed to extend those findings. METHODS The study included 45 OCD patients and 15 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers. Clinical evaluation was conducted using the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A), and Clinical Global Impression rating scale (CGI). Physiological measures were resting and active motor thresholds (RMT and AMT), motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, cortical silent period (CSP) and transcallosal inhibition (TCI) durations, short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI), and intracortical facilitation. RESULTS RMT and AMT were significantly lower in patients than in the control group. The mean duration of the CSP and TCI were also significantly shorter. Obsessive trait was associated with significant reduction of TCI duration compared to compulsive trait. There was significant reduction in SICI in OCD patients compared to controls. There were no significant correlations between the Y-BOCS, HAM-A and CGI scores and the cortical excitability parameters. CONCLUSION These results provide further evidence for inhibitory deficits or increased facilitation in cortical circuits of patients with OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman M Khedr
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt.
| | - Khaled A M Elbeh
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Yasser Elserogy
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Hossam E Khalifa
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A Ahmed
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud H Hafez
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Anwar M Ali
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
| | - Noha A Elfetoh
- Department of neuropsychiatry, faculty of medicine, Assiut university hospital, 71511 Assiut, Egypt
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Brennan BP, Jensen JE, Perriello C, Pope HG, Jenike MA, Hudson JI, Rauch SL, Kaufman MJ. LOWER POSTERIOR CINGULATE CORTEX GLUTATHIONE LEVELS IN OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 2016; 1:116-124. [PMID: 26949749 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several lines of evidence support the hypothesis that lower cerebral levels of glutathione (GSH), associated with increased oxidative stress, may contribute to obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, no studies to date have investigated brain GSH levels in individuals with OCD. METHODS Twenty-nine individuals with OCD and 25 age-, sex-, and race-matched comparison individuals without OCD underwent single voxel 2D J-resolved proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to examine GSH levels in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC). MRS data were analyzed using LCModel and a simulated basis set. Group metabolite differences referenced to total creatine (Cr), as well as relationships between metabolite ratios and symptom severity as measured by the Yale-Brown Obsessive-Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS), were analyzed using linear regression with adjustment for age, sex, and race. RESULTS One OCD participant failed to produce usable PCC MRS data. We found significantly lower PCC GSH/Cr in OCD participants compared with non-OCD participants (β = -0.027 [95% CI: -0.049 to -5.9 × 10-3]; P = 0.014). PCC GSH/Cr was not significantly associated with total Y-BOCS score in the OCD group (β = 5.7 × 10-4 [95% CI: -4.8 × 10-3 to 5.9 × 10-3]; P = 0.83). CONCLUSIONS Lower PCC GSH/Cr may be indicative of increased oxidative stress secondary to hypermetabolism in this brain region in OCD. Future MRS studies are warranted to investigate GSH levels in other brain regions that comprise the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit thought to be abnormal in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian P Brennan
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA; Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Institute, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - J Eric Jensen
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA
| | | | - Harrison G Pope
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Michael A Jenike
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders Institute, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - James I Hudson
- Biological Psychiatry Laboratory, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Scott L Rauch
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Marc J Kaufman
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA; McLean Imaging Center, McLean Hospital, Belmont, MA
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Ahmari SE. Using mice to model Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: From genes to circuits. Neuroscience 2015; 321:121-137. [PMID: 26562431 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a severe, chronic, and highly prevalent psychiatric disorder that affects between 1.5% and 3% of people worldwide. Despite its severity, high prevalence, and clear societal cost, current OCD therapies are only partially effective. In order to ultimately develop improved treatments for this severe mental illness, we need further research to gain an improved understanding of the pathophysiology that underlies obsessions and compulsions. Though studies in OCD patients can provide some insight into the disease process, studies in humans are inherently limited in their ability to dissect pathologic processes because of their non-invasive nature. The recent development of strategies for genetic and circuit-specific manipulation in rodent models finally allows us to identify the molecular, cellular, and circuit events that lead to abnormal repetitive behaviors and affect dysregulation relevant to OCD. This review will highlight recent studies in mouse model systems that have used transgenic and optogenetic tools in combination with classic pharmacology and behavioral techniques to advance our understanding of these pathologic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne E Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States; Center for Neuroscience Program and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States.
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Zhang K, Cao L, Zhu W, Wang G, Wang Q, Hu H, Zhao M. Association between the efficacy of fluoxetine treatment in obsessive-compulsive disorder patients and SLC1A1 in a Han Chinese population. Psychiatry Res 2015; 229:631-2. [PMID: 26154820 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2015.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kai Zhang
- Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Leiming Cao
- Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Wei Zhu
- Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China
| | - Guoqiang Wang
- Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, China.
| | - Qingzhong Wang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hao Hu
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
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Ahmari SE, Dougherty DD. DISSECTING OCD CIRCUITS: FROM ANIMAL MODELS TO TARGETED TREATMENTS. Depress Anxiety 2015; 32:550-62. [PMID: 25952989 PMCID: PMC4515165 DOI: 10.1002/da.22367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic, severe mental illness with up to 2-3% prevalence worldwide. In fact, OCD has been classified as one of the world's 10 leading causes of illness-related disability according to the World Health Organization, largely because of the chronic nature of disabling symptoms.([1]) Despite the severity and high prevalence of this chronic and disabling disorder, there is still relatively limited understanding of its pathophysiology. However, this is now rapidly changing due to development of powerful technologies that can be used to dissect the neural circuits underlying pathologic behaviors. In this article, we describe recent technical advances that have allowed neuroscientists to start identifying the circuits underlying complex repetitive behaviors using animal model systems. In addition, we review current surgical and stimulation-based treatments for OCD that target circuit dysfunction. Finally, we discuss how findings from animal models may be applied in the clinical arena to help inform and refine targeted brain stimulation-based treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne E. Ahmari
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, 15219 USA
| | - Darin D. Dougherty
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
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Cengiz M, Okutan SN, Bayoglu B, Sakalli Kani A, Bayar R, Kocabasoglu N. Genetic Polymorphism of the Serotonin Transporter Gene, SLC6A4 rs16965628, Is Associated with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 2015; 19:228-34. [DOI: 10.1089/gtmb.2014.0319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Mujgan Cengiz
- Department of Medical Biology, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Saide Nur Okutan
- Department of Science, Institute of Forensic Science, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Burcu Bayoglu
- Department of Medical Biology, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ayse Sakalli Kani
- Department of Psychiatry, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Reha Bayar
- Department of Psychiatry, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Nese Kocabasoglu
- Department of Psychiatry, Cerrahpasa Medical Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
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Mattheisen M, Samuels JF, Wang Y, Greenberg BD, Fyer AJ, McCracken JT, Geller DA, Murphy DL, Knowles JA, Grados MA, Riddle MA, Rasmussen SA, McLaughlin NC, Nurmi E, Askland KD, Qin HD, Cullen BA, Piacentini J, Pauls DL, Bienvenu OJ, Stewart SE, Liang KY, Goes FS, Maher B, Pulver AE, Shugart YY, Valle D, Lange C, Nestadt G. Genome-wide association study in obsessive-compulsive disorder: results from the OCGAS. Mol Psychiatry 2015; 20:337-44. [PMID: 24821223 PMCID: PMC4231023 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2014.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 190] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a psychiatric condition characterized by intrusive thoughts and urges and repetitive, intentional behaviors that cause significant distress and impair functioning. The OCD Collaborative Genetics Association Study (OCGAS) is comprised of comprehensively assessed OCD patients with an early age of OCD onset. After application of a stringent quality control protocol, a total of 1065 families (containing 1406 patients with OCD), combined with population-based samples (resulting in a total sample of 5061 individuals), were studied. An integrative analyses pipeline was utilized, involving association testing at single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and gene levels (via a hybrid approach that allowed for combined analyses of the family- and population-based data). The smallest P-value was observed for a marker on chromosome 9 (near PTPRD, P=4.13 × 10(-)(7)). Pre-synaptic PTPRD promotes the differentiation of glutamatergic synapses and interacts with SLITRK3. Together, both proteins selectively regulate the development of inhibitory GABAergic synapses. Although no SNPs were identified as associated with OCD at genome-wide significance level, follow-up analyses of genome-wide association study (GWAS) signals from a previously published OCD study identified significant enrichment (P=0.0176). Secondary analyses of high-confidence interaction partners of DLGAP1 and GRIK2 (both showing evidence for association in our follow-up and the original GWAS study) revealed a trend of association (P=0.075) for a set of genes such as NEUROD6, SV2A, GRIA4, SLC1A2 and PTPRD. Analyses at the gene level revealed association of IQCK and C16orf88 (both P<1 × 10(-)(6), experiment-wide significant), as well as OFCC1 (P=6.29 × 10(-)(5)). The suggestive findings in this study await replication in larger samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Mattheisen
- Department of Biomedicine and Center for Integrated Sequencing (iSEQ), Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Harvard School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genomic Mathematics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jack F. Samuels
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ying Wang
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Benjamin D. Greenberg
- Brown Medical School, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Abby J. Fyer
- College of Physicians and Surgeons at Columbia University, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - James T. McCracken
- University of California, Los Angeles School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel A. Geller
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Dennis L. Murphy
- National Institute of Mental Health, Laboratory of Clinical Science, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - James A. Knowles
- Keck School of Medicine at the University of Southern California, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Marco A. Grados
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mark A. Riddle
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven A. Rasmussen
- Brown Medical School, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Nicole C. McLaughlin
- Brown Medical School, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Erica Nurmi
- University of California, Los Angeles School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kathleen D. Askland
- Brown Medical School, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Hai-De Qin
- National Institute of Mental Health, Unit of Statistical Genomics, Intramural Research Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Bernadette A. Cullen
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - John Piacentini
- University of California, Los Angeles School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - David L. Pauls
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, MA, USA
| | - O. Joseph Bienvenu
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - S. Evelyn Stewart
- Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, Boston, MA, USA
- University of British Columbia, Department of Psychiatry, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kung-Yee Liang
- Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Mental Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Fernando S. Goes
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Brion Maher
- Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Department of Mental Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ann E. Pulver
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Yin-Yao Shugart
- National Institute of Mental Health, Unit of Statistical Genomics, Intramural Research Program, Division of Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David Valle
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Institute of Human Genetics, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Cristoph Lange
- Harvard School of Public Health, Department of Biostatistics, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Genomic Mathematics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gerald Nestadt
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Brem S, Grünblatt E, Drechsler R, Riederer P, Walitza S. The neurobiological link between OCD and ADHD. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 6:175-202. [PMID: 25017045 DOI: 10.1007/s12402-014-0146-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are two of the most common neuropsychiatric diseases in paediatric populations. The high comorbidity of ADHD and OCD with each other, especially of ADHD in paediatric OCD, is well described. OCD and ADHD often follow a chronic course with persistent rates of at least 40–50 %. Family studies showed high heritability in ADHD and OCD, and some genetic findings showed similar variants for both disorders of the same pathogenetic mechanisms, whereas other genetic findings may differentiate between ADHD and OCD. Neuropsychological and neuroimaging studies suggest that partly similar executive functions are affected in both disorders. The deficits in the corresponding brain networks may be responsible for the perseverative, compulsive symptoms in OCD but also for the disinhibited and impulsive symptoms characterizing ADHD. This article reviews the current literature of neuroimaging, neurochemical circuitry, neuropsychological and genetic findings considering similarities as well as differences between OCD and ADHD.
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Pauls DL, Abramovitch A, Rauch SL, Geller DA. Obsessive–compulsive disorder: an integrative genetic and neurobiological perspective. Nat Rev Neurosci 2014; 15:410-24. [DOI: 10.1038/nrn3746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 468] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Russo M, Naro A, Mastroeni C, Morgante F, Terranova C, Muscatello M, Zoccali R, Calabrò R, Quartarone A. Obsessive-compulsive disorder: A “sensory-motor” problem? Int J Psychophysiol 2014; 92:74-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2013] [Revised: 02/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Evidence-based pharmacological interventions for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) are targeted mainly at the serotonergic and dopaminergic pathways, and are not always effective. It is timely to review the growing evidence from animal models and clinical research (e.g., brain imaging, genetics) on the role of the glutamatergic system in OCD. RECENT FINDINGS Emerging evidence from both animal models and clinical research (including brain imaging, neurogenetics) supports the glutamatergic system as a potential target for pharmacotherapy in OCD. Although there have been relatively few randomized controlled trials of glutamatergic agents in pediatric or adult OCD to date, there is some work on riluzole, memantine, ketamine, topiramate, lamotrigine, N-acetylcysteine, and D-cycloserine. SUMMARY Given the need for more efficacious treatments in OCD, and given emergent findings on the role of the glutamatergic system in this disorder, there is a need for additional pharmacotherapy trials on glutamatergic agents in OCD. Possible research designs for such trials might include stand-alone approaches, pharmacotherapy augmentation, or psychotherapy augmentation.
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Cai J, Zhang W, Yi Z, Lu W, Wu Z, Chen J, Yu S, Fang Y, Zhang C. Influence of polymorphisms in genes SLC1A1, GRIN2B, and GRIK2 on clozapine-induced obsessive-compulsive symptoms. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 230:49-55. [PMID: 23660601 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-013-3137-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Clinical observations indicate that atypical antipsychotics, especially clozapine, induce obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms in schizophrenia patients. Recent data from neuroimaging and clinical trials suggest a role for altered glutamate neurotransmission in the etiology of OC disorder (OCD), and SLC1A1, GRIN2B, and GRIK2 have all been reported to regulate glutamate transmission and affect OCD pathophysiology. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to determine whether SLC1A1, GRIN2B, and GRIK2 are associated with clozapine-induced OC symptoms. METHODS A total of 250 clinically stable schizophrenia patients receiving clozapine treatment were recruited. The Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale (Y-BOCS) was used to evaluate the severity of OC symptoms. Based on their Y-BOCS scores, 250 patients were divided into the OC and non-OC groups (patients with or without OC symptoms, respectively). Additionally, three reported OCD susceptibility polymorphisms, SLC1A1 (rs2228622), GRIN2B (rs890), and GRIK2 (rs1556995), were genotyped. RESULTS Trends of association with OC symptoms were observed in rs2228622A and rs890T alleles. SLC1A1 and GRIN2B interaction was found in the significant two-locus gene-gene interaction model (p = 0.0021), using the multifactor dimensionality reduction method. Further analysis showed a significant interaction between SLC1A1 and GRIN2B on the Y-BOCS score (F 6, 137 = 7.650, p < 0.001), and individuals with AA/TT genotypes had a significantly higher mean Y-BOCS score than those with other genotypes, except AG/TT. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that SLC1A1, GRIN2B, and interactions between the two may potentially confer a susceptibility to OC symptoms in schizophrenia patients receiving clozapine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Cai
- Schizophrenia Program, Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 200030, People's Republic of China
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Wu H, Wang X, Yu S, Wang D, Chen J, Jiang K, Zhu L, Xiao Z, Fralick D. Association of the candidate gene SLC1A1 and obsessive-compulsive disorder in Han Chinese population. Psychiatry Res 2013; 209:737-9. [PMID: 23411042 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2012] [Revised: 12/09/2012] [Accepted: 12/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This case-control study enrolled 578 obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) patients and 649 controls and genotyped rs10491734, rs2228622, rs301430 and rs301443 to replicate association of the SLC1A1 gene with OCD in ethnic Han Chinese. The G-A-C-G and G-G-T-C haplotypes were found to be significantly associated with OCD in overall samples, male samples and female samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haisu Wu
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, 200030, Shanghai, China
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Abstract
Twin studies indicate that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is strongly influenced by additive genetic factors. Yet, molecular genetic association studies have yielded inconsistent results, possibly because of differences across studies in statistical power. Meta-analysis can yield greater power. This study reports the first comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between OCD and all previously examined polymorphisms for which there was sufficient information in the source studies to compute odds ratios (ORs). A total of 230 polymorphisms from 113 genetic association studies were identified. A full meta-analysis was conducted for 20 polymorphisms that were examined in 5 or more data sets, and a secondary meta-analysis (limited to the computation of mean effect sizes) was conducted for 210 polymorphisms that were examined in fewer than 5 data sets. In the main meta-analysis, OCD was associated with serotonin-related polymorphisms (5-HTTLPR and HTR2A) and, in males only, with polymorphisms involved in catecholamine modulation (COMT and MAOA). Nonsignificant trends were identified for two dopamine-related polymorphisms (DAT1 and DRD3) and a glutamate-related polymorphism (rs3087879). The secondary meta-analysis identified another 18 polymorphisms with significant ORs that merit further investigation. This study demonstrates that OCD is associated with multiple genes, with most having a modest association with OCD. This suggests a polygenic model of OCD, consistent with twin studies, in which multiple genes make small, incremental contributions to the risk of developing the disorder. Future studies, with sufficient power to detect small effects, are needed to investigate the genetic basis of OCD subtypes, such as early vs late onset OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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Paschou P. The genetic basis of Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1026-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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