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Sakthivel S, Maria Francis Y, G SN, K V SD, Dhakshnamoorthy N. Anthropometric Analysis of Cuboid Bones in a South Indian Population. Cureus 2024; 16:e51622. [PMID: 38313952 PMCID: PMC10837486 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.51622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Purpose Cuboid bone and its fibromuscular supports maintain the lateral longitudinal arch in weight transmission during different gait cycle phases. Morphometry of the cuboid bone is essential for designing a cuboid prosthesis for foot reconstruction and establishing an individual's biological profile. The present study aims to assess the morphology and morphometry of the cuboid bone. Materials and methods The study used 103 cuboid bones (right 50, left 53) of unknown sex. Different shapes of cuboid articular facets were observed, and the morphometric parameters such as length, breadth, and height of cuboid, and the dimensions of articular facets in cuboid (calcaneal facet, fourth and fifth metatarsal facets, ecto-cuneiform facet, navicular facet, and facet for os peroneum) were analyzed. Results The mean length, breadth, and height of the cuboid bone were 33.69 ± 2.61 mm, 25.43 ± 2.87 mm, and 23.03 ± 2.43 mm, respectively. The mean transverse and vertical diameters were 23.22 ± 2.4 mm and 15.97 ± 1.85 mm, respectively. Facet for os peroneum was observed in 74.76% and for navicular bone in 26.2%. The mean transverse and vertical diameters were 7.16 ± 2.08 and 6.78 ± 1.78 mm, respectively. The depth of the peroneal groove was 4.30 ± 1.11 mm. Conclusion The morphometric data from the present study could assist in preoperative planning and designing of prostheses for foot reconstruction, and in establishing the biological profile of an individual, which can help the anthropologists in identifying the unknown remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulochana Sakthivel
- Anatomy, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, IND
| | | | - Sankara N G
- Anatomy, Saveetha Medical College and Hospital, Chennai, IND
| | - Sarala D K V
- Anatomy, Employees' State Insurance Company Medical College and Hospital, Chennai, IND
| | - Nithya Dhakshnamoorthy
- Anatomy, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Puducherry, IND
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2
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Welte L, Holowka NB, Kelly LA, Arndt A, Rainbow MJ. Mobility of the human foot's medial arch helps enable upright bipedal locomotion. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1155439. [PMID: 37324435 PMCID: PMC10264861 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1155439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Developing the ability to habitually walk and run upright on two feet is one of the most significant transformations to have occurred in human evolution. Many musculoskeletal adaptations enabled bipedal locomotion, including dramatic structural changes to the foot and, in particular, the evolution of an elevated medial arch. The foot's arched structure has previously been assumed to play a central role in directly propelling the center of mass forward and upward through leverage about the toes and a spring-like energy recoil. However, it is unclear whether or how the plantarflexion mobility and height of the medial arch support its propulsive lever function. We use high-speed biplanar x-ray measurements of foot bone motion on seven participants while walking and running and compare their motion to a subject-specific model without arch recoil. We show that regardless of intraspecific differences in medial arch height, arch recoil enables a longer contact time and favorable propulsive conditions at the ankle for walking upright on an extended leg. The generally overlooked navicular-medial cuneiform joint is primarily responsible for arch recoil in human arches. The mechanism through which arch recoil enables an upright ankle posture may have helped drive the evolution of the longitudinal arch after our last common ancestor with chimpanzees, who lack arch plantarflexion mobility during push-off. Future morphological investigations of the navicular-medial cuneiform joint will likely provide new interpretations of the fossil record. Our work further suggests that enabling medial arch recoil in footwear and surgical interventions may be critical for maintaining the ankle's natural propulsive ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Welte
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Nicholas B Holowka
- Department of Anthropology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States
| | - Luke A Kelly
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Anton Arndt
- The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences (GIH), Stockholm, Sweden
- Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael J Rainbow
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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3
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Ito K, Nakamura T, Suzuki R, Negishi T, Oishi M, Nagura T, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Comparative Functional Morphology of Human and Chimpanzee Feet Based on Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 9:760486. [PMID: 35096789 PMCID: PMC8793834 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.760486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
To comparatively investigate the morphological adaptation of the human foot for achieving robust and efficient bipedal locomotion, we develop three-dimensional finite element models of the human and chimpanzee feet. Foot bones and the outer surface of the foot are extracted from computer tomography images and meshed with tetrahedral elements. The ligaments and plantar fascia are represented by tension-only spring elements. The contacts between the bones and between the foot and ground are solved using frictionless and Coulomb friction contact algorithms, respectively. Physiologically realistic loading conditions of the feet during quiet bipedal standing are simulated. Our results indicate that the center of pressure (COP) is located more anteriorly in the human foot than in the chimpanzee foot, indicating a larger stability margin in bipedal posture in humans. Furthermore, the vertical free moment generated by the coupling motion of the calcaneus and tibia during axial loading is larger in the human foot, which can facilitate the compensation of the net yaw moment of the body around the COP during bipedal locomotion. Furthermore, the human foot can store elastic energy more effectively during axial loading for the effective generation of propulsive force in the late stance phase. This computational framework for a comparative investigation of the causal relationship among the morphology, kinematics, and kinetics of the foot may provide a better understanding regarding the functional significance of the morphological features of the human foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohta Ito
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Tomoya Nakamura
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Ryo Suzuki
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Takuo Negishi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Motoharu Oishi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Azabu University, Sagamihara, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- Department of Clinical Biomechanics, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Jinzaki
- Department of Radiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
- *Correspondence: Naomichi Ogihara,
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4
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Oku H, Ide N, Ogihara N. Forward dynamic simulation of Japanese macaque bipedal locomotion demonstrates better energetic economy in a virtualised plantigrade posture. Commun Biol 2021; 4:308. [PMID: 33686215 PMCID: PMC7940622 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-01831-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
A plantigrade foot with a large robust calcaneus is regarded as a distinctive morphological feature of the human foot; it is presumably the result of adaptation for habitual bipedal locomotion. The foot of the Japanese macaque, on the other hand, does not have such a feature, which hampers it from making foot-ground contact at the heel during bipedal locomotion. Understanding how this morphological difference functionally affects the generation of bipedal locomotion is crucial for elucidating the evolution of human bipedalism. In this study, we constructed a forward dynamic simulation of bipedal locomotion in the Japanese macaque based on a neuromusculoskeletal model to evaluate how virtual manipulation of the foot structure from digitigrade to plantigrade affects the kinematics, dynamics, and energetics of bipedal locomotion in a nonhuman primate whose musculoskeletal anatomy is not adapted to bipedalism. The normal bipedal locomotion generated was in good agreement with that of actual Japanese macaques. If, as in human walking, the foot morphology was altered to allow heel contact, the vertical ground reaction force profile became double-peaked and the cost of transport decreased. These results suggest that evolutionary changes in the foot structure were important for the acquisition of human-like efficient bipedal locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Oku
- grid.26091.3c0000 0004 1936 9959Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Naohiko Ide
- grid.26091.3c0000 0004 1936 9959Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- grid.26091.3c0000 0004 1936 9959Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan ,grid.26999.3d0000 0001 2151 536XDepartment of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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DeSilva J, McNutt E, Benoit J, Zipfel B. One small step: A review of Plio‐Pleistocene hominin foot evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168 Suppl 67:63-140. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy DeSilva
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Ellison McNutt
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
| | - Julien Benoit
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Bernhard Zipfel
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
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6
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Holowka NB, Lieberman DE. Rethinking the evolution of the human foot: insights from experimental research. J Exp Biol 2018; 221:221/17/jeb174425. [DOI: 10.1242/jeb.174425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT
Adaptive explanations for modern human foot anatomy have long fascinated evolutionary biologists because of the dramatic differences between our feet and those of our closest living relatives, the great apes. Morphological features, including hallucal opposability, toe length and the longitudinal arch, have traditionally been used to dichotomize human and great ape feet as being adapted for bipedal walking and arboreal locomotion, respectively. However, recent biomechanical models of human foot function and experimental investigations of great ape locomotion have undermined this simple dichotomy. Here, we review this research, focusing on the biomechanics of foot strike, push-off and elastic energy storage in the foot, and show that humans and great apes share some underappreciated, surprising similarities in foot function, such as use of plantigrady and ability to stiffen the midfoot. We also show that several unique features of the human foot, including a spring-like longitudinal arch and short toes, are likely adaptations to long distance running. We use this framework to interpret the fossil record and argue that the human foot passed through three evolutionary stages: first, a great ape-like foot adapted for arboreal locomotion but with some adaptations for bipedal walking; second, a foot adapted for effective bipedal walking but retaining some arboreal grasping adaptations; and third, a human-like foot adapted for enhanced economy during long-distance walking and running that had lost its prehensility. Based on this scenario, we suggest that selection for bipedal running played a major role in the loss of arboreal adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Daniel E. Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, 11 Divinity Ave, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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7
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Hatala KG, Demes B, Richmond BG. Laetoli footprints reveal bipedal gait biomechanics different from those of modern humans and chimpanzees. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.0235. [PMID: 27488647 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipedalism is a key adaptation that shaped human evolution, yet the timing and nature of its evolution remain unclear. Here we use new experimentally based approaches to investigate the locomotor mechanics preserved by the famous Pliocene hominin footprints from Laetoli, Tanzania. We conducted footprint formation experiments with habitually barefoot humans and with chimpanzees to quantitatively compare their footprints to those preserved at Laetoli. Our results show that the Laetoli footprints are morphologically distinct from those of both chimpanzees and habitually barefoot modern humans. By analysing biomechanical data that were collected during the human experiments we, for the first time, directly link differences between the Laetoli and modern human footprints to specific biomechanical variables. We find that the Laetoli hominin probably used a more flexed limb posture at foot strike than modern humans when walking bipedally. The Laetoli footprints provide a clear snapshot of an early hominin bipedal gait that probably involved a limb posture that was slightly but significantly different from our own, and these data support the hypothesis that important evolutionary changes to hominin bipedalism occurred within the past 3.66 Myr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin G Hatala
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW, Suite 6000, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Brigitte Demes
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Brian G Richmond
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
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8
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Ito K, Hosoda K, Shimizu M, Ikemoto S, Nagura T, Seki H, Kitashiro M, Imanishi N, Aiso S, Jinzaki M, Ogihara N. Three-dimensional innate mobility of the human foot bones under axial loading using biplane X-ray fluoroscopy. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2017; 4:171086. [PMID: 29134100 PMCID: PMC5666283 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The anatomical design of the human foot is considered to facilitate generation of bipedal walking. However, how the morphology and structure of the human foot actually contribute to generation of bipedal walking remains unclear. In the present study, we investigated the three-dimensional kinematics of the foot bones under a weight-bearing condition using cadaver specimens, to characterize the innate mobility of the human foot inherently prescribed in its morphology and structure. Five cadaver feet were axially loaded up to 588 N (60 kgf), and radiographic images were captured using a biplane X-ray fluoroscopy system. The present study demonstrated that the talus is medioinferiorly translated and internally rotated as the calcaneus is everted owing to axial loading, causing internal rotation of the tibia and flattening of the medial longitudinal arch in the foot. Furthermore, as the talus is internally rotated, the talar head moves medially with respect to the navicular, inducing external rotation of the navicular and metatarsals. Under axial loading, the cuboid is everted simultaneously with the calcaneus owing to the osseous locking mechanism in the calcaneocuboid joint. Such detailed descriptions about the innate mobility of the human foot will contribute to clarifying functional adaptation and pathogenic mechanisms of the human foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kohta Ito
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
- Authors for correspondence: Kohta Ito e-mail:
| | - Koh Hosoda
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Shimizu
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Shuhei Ikemoto
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- School of Medicine, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
- Authors for correspondence: Naomichi Ogihara e-mail:
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9
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Holowka NB, O'Neill MC, Thompson NE, Demes B. Chimpanzee ankle and foot joint kinematics: Arboreal versus terrestrial locomotion. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 164:131-147. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B. Holowka
- Department of Human Evolutionary BiologyHarvard UniversityCambridge Massachusetts02138
- Department of AnthropologyStony Brook UniversityStony Brook New York11795
| | - Matthew C. O'Neill
- Department of Basic Medical SciencesUniversity of Arizona College of Medicine‐PhoenixPhoenix Arizona85004
| | - Nathan E. Thompson
- Department of AnatomyNYIT College of Osteopathic MedicineOld Westbury New York11568
- Department of Anatomical SciencesStony Brook University School of MedicineStony Brook New York11795
| | - Brigitte Demes
- Department of Anatomical SciencesStony Brook University School of MedicineStony Brook New York11795
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10
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Rearfoot posture of Australopithecus sediba and the evolution of the hominin longitudinal arch. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17677. [PMID: 26628197 PMCID: PMC4667273 DOI: 10.1038/srep17677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The longitudinal arch is one of the hallmarks of the human foot but its evolutionary history remains controversial due to the fragmentary nature of the fossil record. In modern humans, the presence of a longitudinal arch is reflected in the angular relationships among the major surfaces of the human talus and calcaneus complex, which is also known as the rearfoot. A complete talus and calcaneus of Australopithecus sediba provide the opportunity to evaluate rearfoot posture in an early hominin for the first time. Here I show that A. sediba is indistinguishable from extant African apes in the angular configuration of its rearfoot, which strongly suggests that it lacked a longitudinal arch. Inferences made from isolated fossils support the hypothesis that Australopithecus afarensis possessed an arched foot. However, tali attributed to temporally younger taxa like Australopithecus africanus and Homo floresiensis are more similar to those of A. sediba. The inferred absence of a longitudinal arch in A. sediba would be biomechanically consistent with prior suggestions of increased midtarsal mobility in this taxon. The morphological patterns in talus and calcaneus angular relationships among fossil hominins suggest that there was diversity in traits associated with the longitudinal arch in the Plio-Pleistocene.
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11
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Harcourt-Smith WEH, Throckmorton Z, Congdon KA, Zipfel B, Deane AS, Drapeau MSM, Churchill SE, Berger LR, DeSilva JM. The foot of Homo naledi. Nat Commun 2015; 6:8432. [PMID: 26439101 PMCID: PMC4600720 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Modern humans are characterized by a highly specialized foot that reflects our obligate bipedalism. Our understanding of hominin foot evolution is, although, hindered by a paucity of well-associated remains. Here we describe the foot of Homo naledi from Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa, using 107 pedal elements, including one nearly-complete adult foot. The H. naledi foot is predominantly modern human-like in morphology and inferred function, with an adducted hallux, an elongated tarsus, and derived ankle and calcaneocuboid joints. In combination, these features indicate a foot well adapted for striding bipedalism. However, the H. naledi foot differs from modern humans in having more curved proximal pedal phalanges, and features suggestive of a reduced medial longitudinal arch. Within the context of primitive features found elsewhere in the skeleton, these findings suggest a unique locomotor repertoire for H. naledi, thus providing further evidence of locomotor diversity within both the hominin clade and the genus Homo.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. E. H. Harcourt-Smith
- Department of Anthropology, Lehman College CUNY, 250 Bedford Park Boulevard W, Bronx, New York 10468, USA
- Division of Paleontology, American Museum of Natural History, CPW @ W. 79th Street, New York, New York 10024, USA
- Department of Anthropology, City University of New York Graduate Center, 365 5th Avenue, New York, New York 10016, USA
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
| | - Z. Throckmorton
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Anatomy, DeBusk College of Osteopathic Medicine, Lincoln Memorial University, Harrogate, Tennessee 37724, USA
| | - K. A. Congdon
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Biology, Southern Utah University, 351W Center Street, Cedar City, Utah 84720, USA
| | - B. Zipfel
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
| | - A. S. Deane
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, MN 224 UK Medical Center, Lexington, Kemtucky 40536, USA
| | - M. S. M. Drapeau
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Anthropology, Université de Montréal, C.P. 6128, Succ. Centre-ville, Montréal, Quebec H3C 3J7, Canada
| | - S. E. Churchill
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, 104 Biological Sciences Building, Box 90383, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - L. R. Berger
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
| | - J. M. DeSilva
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and Centre for Excellence in Palaeosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg 2050, South Africa
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire 03775, USA
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, 232 Bay State Road, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
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12
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Jashashvili T, Dowdeswell MR, Lebrun R, Carlson KJ. Cortical structure of hallucal metatarsals and locomotor adaptations in hominoids. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0117905. [PMID: 25635768 PMCID: PMC4311976 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0117905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Diaphyseal morphology of long bones, in part, reflects in vivo loads experienced during the lifetime of an individual. The first metatarsal, as a cornerstone structure of the foot, presumably expresses diaphyseal morphology that reflects loading history of the foot during stance phase of gait. Human feet differ substantially from those of other apes in terms of loading histories when comparing the path of the center of pressure during stance phase, which reflects different weight transfer mechanisms. Here we use a novel approach for quantifying continuous thickness and cross-sectional geometric properties of long bones in order to test explicit hypotheses about loading histories and diaphyseal structure of adult chimpanzee, gorilla, and human first metatarsals. For each hallucal metatarsal, 17 cross sections were extracted at regularly-spaced intervals (2.5% length) between 25% and 65% length. Cortical thickness in cross sections was measured in one degree radially-arranged increments, while second moments of area were measured about neutral axes also in one degree radially-arranged increments. Standardized thicknesses and second moments of area were visualized using false color maps, while penalized discriminant analyses were used to evaluate quantitative species differences. Humans systematically exhibit the thinnest diaphyseal cortices, yet the greatest diaphyseal rigidities, particularly in dorsoplantar regions. Shifts in orientation of maximum second moments of area along the diaphysis also distinguish human hallucal metatarsals from those of chimpanzees and gorillas. Diaphyseal structure reflects different loading regimes, often in predictable ways, with human versus non-human differences probably resulting both from the use of arboreal substrates by non-human apes and by differing spatial relationships between hallux position and orientation of the substrate reaction resultant during stance. The novel morphological approach employed in this study offers the potential for transformative insights into form-function relationships in additional long bones, including those of extinct organisms (e.g., fossils).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tea Jashashvili
- Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Wits, South Africa
- Department of Geology and Palaeontology, Georgian National Museum, Tbilisi, Georgia
- * E-mail:
| | - Mark R. Dowdeswell
- School of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Wits, South Africa
| | - Renaud Lebrun
- Institut des Sciences de l’Evolution de Montpellier—UMR 5554, Montpellier, France
| | - Kristian J. Carlson
- Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Wits, South Africa
- Department of Anthropology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, United States of America
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13
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Greiner TM, Ball KA. Kinematics of primate midfoot flexibility. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 155:610-20. [PMID: 25234343 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study describes a unique assessment of primate intrinsic foot joint kinematics based upon bone pin rigid cluster tracking. It challenges the assumption that human evolution resulted in a reduction of midfoot flexibility, which has been identified in other primates as the "midtarsal break." Rigid cluster pins were inserted into the foot bones of human, chimpanzee, baboon, and macaque cadavers. The positions of these bone pins were monitored during a plantarflexion-dorsiflexion movement cycle. Analysis resolved flexion-extension movement patterns and the associated orientation of rotational axes for the talonavicular, calcaneocuboid, and lateral cubometatarsal joints. Results show that midfoot flexibility occurs primarily at the talonavicular and cubometatarsal joints. The rotational magnitudes are roughly similar between humans and chimps. There is also a similarity among evaluated primates in the observed rotations of the lateral cubometatarsal joint, but there was much greater rotation observed for the talonavicular joint, which may serve to differentiate monkeys from the hominines. It appears that the capability for a midtarsal break is present within the human foot. A consideration of the joint axes shows that the medial and lateral joints have opposing orientations, which has been associated with a rigid locking mechanism in the human foot. However, the potential for this same mechanism also appears in the chimpanzee foot. These findings demonstrate a functional similarity within the midfoot of the hominines. Therefore, the kinematic capabilities and restrictions for the skeletal linkages of the human foot may not be as unique as has been previously suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Greiner
- Department of Health Professions, University of Wisconsin- La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, 54601
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Parr WCH, Soligo C, Smaers J, Chatterjee HJ, Ruto A, Cornish L, Wroe S. Three-dimensional shape variation of talar surface morphology in hominoid primates. J Anat 2014; 225:42-59. [PMID: 24842795 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The hominoid foot is of particular interest to biological anthropologists, as changes in its anatomy through time reflect the adoption of terrestrial locomotion, particularly in species of Australopithecus and Homo. Understanding the osteological morphology associated with changes in whole foot function and the development of the plantar medial longitudinal foot arch are key to understanding the transition through habitual bipedalism in australopithecines to obligate bipedalism and long-distance running in Homo. The talus is ideal for studying relationships between morphology and function in this context, as it is a major contributor to the adduction-abduction, plantar-dorsal flexion and inversion-eversion of the foot, and transmits all forces encountered from the foot to the leg. The talar surface is predominantly covered by articular facets, which have different quantifiable morphological characters, including surface area, surface curvature and orientation. The talus also presents challenges to the investigator, as its globular shape is very difficult to quantify accurately and reproducibly. Here we apply a three-dimensional approach using type 3 landmarks (slid semilandmarks) that are geometrically homologous to determine overall talar shape variations in a range of living and fossil hominoid taxa. Additionally, we use novel approaches to quantify the relative orientations and curvatures of talar articular facets by determining the principal vectors of facet orientation and fitting spheres to articular facets. The resulting metrics are analysed using phylogenetic regressions and principal components analyses. Our results suggest that articular surface curvatures reflect locomotor specialisations with, in particular, orangutans having more highly curved facets in all but the calcaneal facet. Similarly, our approach to quantifying articular facet orientation appears to be effective in discriminating between extant hominoid species, and may therefore provide a sound basis for the study of fossil taxa and evolution of bipedalism in Australopithecus and Homo.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C H Parr
- Surgical and Orthopaedic Research Laboratory, Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Bates KT, Collins D, Savage R, McClymont J, Webster E, Pataky TC, D'Aout K, Sellers WI, Bennett MR, Crompton RH. The evolution of compliance in the human lateral mid-foot. Proc Biol Sci 2013; 280:20131818. [PMID: 23966646 PMCID: PMC3768320 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2013.1818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fossil evidence for longitudinal arches in the foot is frequently used to constrain the origins of terrestrial bipedality in human ancestors. This approach rests on the prevailing concept that human feet are unique in functioning with a relatively stiff lateral mid-foot, lacking the significant flexion and high plantar pressures present in non-human apes. This paradigm has stood for more than 70 years but has yet to be tested objectively with quantitative data. Herein, we show that plantar pressure records with elevated lateral mid-foot pressures occur frequently in healthy, habitually shod humans, with magnitudes in some individuals approaching absolute maxima across the foot. Furthermore, the same astonishing pressure range is present in bonobos and the orangutan (the most arboreal great ape), yielding overlap with human pressures. Thus, while the mean tendency of habitual mechanics of the mid-foot in healthy humans is indeed consistent with the traditional concept of the lateral mid-foot as a relatively rigid or stabilized structure, it is clear that lateral arch stabilization in humans is not obligate and is often transient. These findings suggest a level of detachment between foot stiffness during gait and osteological structure, hence fossilized bone morphology by itself may only provide a crude indication of mid-foot function in extinct hominins. Evidence for thick plantar tissues in Ardipithecus ramidus suggests that a human-like combination of active and passive modulation of foot compliance by soft tissues extends back into an arboreal context, supporting an arboreal origin of hominin bipedalism in compressive orthogrady. We propose that the musculoskeletal conformation of the modern human mid-foot evolved under selection for a functionally tuneable, rather than obligatory stiff structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology, Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton St, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK.
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Ogihara N, Kikuchi T, Ishiguro Y, Makishima H, Nakatsukasa M. Planar covariation of limb elevation angles during bipedal walking in the Japanese macaque. J R Soc Interface 2012; 9:2181-90. [PMID: 22438491 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2012.0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the planar covariation of lower limb segment elevation angles during bipedal walking in macaques to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the origin and evolution of the planar law in human walking. Two Japanese macaques and four adult humans walking on a treadmill were recorded, and the time course of the elevation angles at the thigh, shank and foot segments relative to the vertical axis were calculated. Our analyses indicated that the planar law also applies to macaque bipedal walking. However, planarity was much lower in macaques, and orientations of the plane differed between the two species because of differences in the foot elevation angle. The human foot is rigidly structured to form a longitudinal arch, whereas the macaque's foot is more flexible and bends at the midtarsal region in the stance phase. This difference in midfoot flexibility between the two species studied was the main source of the difference in the planar law. Thus, the evolution of a stable midfoot in early hominins may have preceded the acquisition of the strong planar intersegmental coordination and possibly facilitated the subsequent emergence of habitual bipedal walking in the human lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan.
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Crompton RH, Pataky TC, Savage R, D'Août K, Bennett MR, Day MH, Bates K, Morse S, Sellers WI. Human-like external function of the foot, and fully upright gait, confirmed in the 3.66 million year old Laetoli hominin footprints by topographic statistics, experimental footprint-formation and computer simulation. J R Soc Interface 2011; 9:707-19. [PMID: 21775326 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2011.0258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
It is commonly held that the major functional features of the human foot (e.g. a functional longitudinal medial arch, lateral to medial force transfer and hallucal (big-toe) push-off) appear only in the last 2 Myr, but functional interpretations of footbones and footprints of early human ancestors (hominins) prior to 2 million years ago (Mya) remain contradictory. Pixel-wise topographical statistical analysis of Laetoli footprint morphology, compared with results from experimental studies of footprint formation; foot-pressure measurements in bipedalism of humans and non-human great apes; and computer simulation techniques, indicate that most of these functional features were already present, albeit less strongly expressed than in ourselves, in the maker of the Laetoli G-1 footprint trail, 3.66 Mya. This finding provides strong support to those previous studies which have interpreted the G-1 prints as generally modern in aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin H Crompton
- Institute of Aging and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool, Sherrington Buildings, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK.
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DeSilva JM, Throckmorton ZJ. Lucy's flat feet: the relationship between the ankle and rearfoot arching in early hominins. PLoS One 2010; 5:e14432. [PMID: 21203433 PMCID: PMC3010983 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2010] [Accepted: 12/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In the Plio-Pleistocene, the hominin foot evolved from a grasping appendage to a stiff, propulsive lever. Central to this transition was the development of the longitudinal arch, a structure that helps store elastic energy and stiffen the foot during bipedal locomotion. Direct evidence for arch evolution, however, has been somewhat elusive given the failure of soft-tissue to fossilize. Paleoanthropologists have relied on footprints and bony correlates of arch development, though little consensus has emerged as to when the arch evolved. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Here, we present evidence from radiographs of modern humans (n = 261) that the set of the distal tibia in the sagittal plane, henceforth referred to as the tibial arch angle, is related to rearfoot arching. Non-human primates have a posteriorly directed tibial arch angle, while most humans have an anteriorly directed tibial arch angle. Those humans with a posteriorly directed tibial arch angle (8%) have significantly lower talocalcaneal and talar declination angles, both measures of an asymptomatic flatfoot. Application of these results to the hominin fossil record reveals that a well developed rearfoot arch had evolved in Australopithecus afarensis. However, as in humans today, Australopithecus populations exhibited individual variation in foot morphology and arch development, and "Lucy" (A.L. 288-1), a 3.18 Myr-old female Australopithecus, likely possessed asymptomatic flat feet. Additional distal tibiae from the Plio-Pleistocene show variation in tibial arch angles, including two early Homo tibiae that also have slightly posteriorly directed tibial arch angles. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE This study finds that the rearfoot arch was present in the genus Australopithecus. However, the female Australopithecus afarensis "Lucy" has an ankle morphology consistent with non-pathological flat-footedness. This study suggests that, as in humans today, there was variation in arch development in Plio-Pleistocene hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M DeSilva
- Department of Anthropology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.
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Earliest complete hominin fifth metatarsal-Implications for the evolution of the lateral column of the foot. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2009; 140:532-45. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.21103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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