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Behling AV, Rainbow MJ, Welte L, Kelly L. Chasing footprints in time - reframing our understanding of human foot function in the context of current evidence and emerging insights. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2023; 98:2136-2151. [PMID: 37489055 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
In this narrative review we evaluate foundational biomechanical theories of human foot function in light of new data acquired with technology that was not available to early researchers. The formulation and perpetuation of early theories about foot function largely involved scientists who were medically trained with an interest in palaeoanthropology, driven by a desire to understand human foot pathologies. Early observations of people with flat feet and foot pain were analogized to those of our primate ancestors, with the concept of flat feet being a primitive trait, which was a driving influence in early foot biomechanics research. We describe the early emergence of the mobile adaptor-rigid lever theory, which was central to most biomechanical theories of human foot function. Many of these theories attempt to explain how a presumed stiffening behaviour of the foot enables forward propulsion. Interestingly, none of the subsequent theories have been able to explain how the foot stiffens for propulsion. Within this review we highlight the key omission that the mobile adaptor-rigid lever paradigm was never experimentally tested. We show based on current evidence that foot (quasi-)stiffness does not actually increase prior to, nor during propulsion. Based on current evidence, it is clear that the mechanical function of the foot is highly versatile. This function is adaptively controlled by the central nervous system to allow the foot to meet the wide variety of demands necessary for human locomotion. Importantly, it seems that substantial joint mobility is essential for this function. We suggest refraining from using simple, mechanical analogies to explain holistic foot function. We urge the scientific community to abandon the long-held mobile adaptor-rigid lever paradigm, and instead to acknowledge the versatile and non-linear mechanical behaviour of a foot that is adapted to meet constantly varying locomotory demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja-Verena Behling
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Science, The University of Queensland, Union Rd, St Lucia, Queensland, 4067, Australia
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, 130 Stuart Street, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Michael J Rainbow
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queen's University, 130 Stuart Street, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada
| | - Lauren Welte
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1513 University Ave, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
| | - Luke Kelly
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Science, The University of Queensland, Union Rd, St Lucia, Queensland, 4067, Australia
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Automated morphological phenotyping using learned shape descriptors and functional maps: A novel approach to geometric morphometrics. PLoS Comput Biol 2023; 19:e1009061. [PMID: 36656910 PMCID: PMC9970057 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The methods of geometric morphometrics are commonly used to quantify morphology in a broad range of biological sciences. The application of these methods to large datasets is constrained by manual landmark placement limiting the number of landmarks and introducing observer bias. To move the field forward, we need to automate morphological phenotyping in ways that capture comprehensive representations of morphological variation with minimal observer bias. Here, we present Morphological Variation Quantifier (morphVQ), a shape analysis pipeline for quantifying, analyzing, and exploring shape variation in the functional domain. morphVQ uses descriptor learning to estimate the functional correspondence between whole triangular meshes in lieu of landmark configurations. With functional maps between pairs of specimens in a dataset we can analyze and explore shape variation. morphVQ uses Consistent ZoomOut refinement to improve these functional maps and produce a new representation of shape variation, area-based and conformal (angular) latent shape space differences (LSSDs). We compare this new representation of shape variation to shape variables obtained via manual digitization and auto3DGM, an existing approach to automated morphological phenotyping. We find that LSSDs compare favorably to modern 3DGM and auto3DGM while being more computationally efficient. By characterizing whole surfaces, our method incorporates more morphological detail in shape analysis. We can classify known biological groupings, such as Genus affiliation with comparable accuracy. The shape spaces produced by our method are similar to those produced by modern 3DGM and to auto3DGM, and distinctiveness functions derived from LSSDs show us how shape variation differs between groups. morphVQ can capture shape in an automated fashion while avoiding the limitations of manually digitized landmarks, and thus represents a novel and computationally efficient addition to the geometric morphometrics toolkit.
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Schuster RW, Cresswell AG, Kelly LA. Foot shape is related to load-induced shape deformations, but neither are good predictors of plantar soft tissue stiffness. J R Soc Interface 2023; 20:20220758. [PMID: 36651181 PMCID: PMC9846431 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2022.0758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Modern human feet are considered unique among primates in their capacity to transmit propulsive forces and re-use elastic energy. Considered central to both these capabilities are their arched configuration and the plantar aponeurosis (PA). However, recent evidence has shown that their interactions are not as simple as proposed by the theoretical and mechanical models that established their significance. Using three-dimensional foot scans and statistical shape and deformation modelling, we show that the shape of the longitudinal and transverse arches varies widely among the healthy adult population, and that the former is subject to load-induced arch flattening, whereas the latter is not. However, longitudinal arch shape and flattening are only one of the various foot shape-deformation relationships. PA stiffness was also found to vary widely. Yet only a small amount of this variability (approx. 10-18%) was explained by variations in foot shape, deformation and their combination. These findings add to the mounting evidence showing that foot mechanics are complex and cannot be accurately represented by simple models. Especially the interactions between longitudinal arch and PA appear to be far less constrained than originally proposed, most likely due to the many degrees of freedom provided by the structural complexity of our feet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert W. Schuster
- School of Human Movement & Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Andrew G. Cresswell
- School of Human Movement & Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Luke A. Kelly
- School of Human Movement & Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
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4
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Kim D, Lewis CL, Gill SV. Effects of obesity and foot arch height on gait mechanics: A cross-sectional study. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260398. [PMID: 34843563 PMCID: PMC8629225 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot arch structure contributes to lower-limb joint mechanics and gait in adults with obesity. However, it is not well-known if excessive weight and arch height together affect gait mechanics compared to the effects of excessive weight and arch height alone. The purpose of this study was to determine the influences of arch height and obesity on gait mechanics in adults. In this study, 1) dynamic plantar pressure, 2) spatiotemporal gait parameters, 3) foot progression angle, and 4) ankle and knee joint angles and moments were collected in adults with normal weight with normal arch heights (n = 11), normal weight with lower arch heights (n = 10), obesity with normal arch heights (n = 8), and obesity with lower arch heights (n = 18) as they walked at their preferred speed and at a pedestrian standard walking speed, 1.25 m/s. Digital foot pressure data were used to compute a measure of arch height, the Chippaux-Smirak Index (CSI). Our results revealed that BMI and arch height were each associated with particular measures of ankle and knee joint mechanics during walking in healthy young adults: (i) a higher BMI with greater peak internal ankle plantar-flexion moment and (ii) a lower arch height with greater peak internal ankle eversion and abduction moments and peak internal knee abduction moment (i.e., external knee adduction moment). Our results have implications for understanding the role of arch height in reducing musculoskeletal injury risks, improving gait, and increasing physical activity for people living with obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daekyoo Kim
- College of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Sargent College, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Cara L. Lewis
- College of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Sargent College, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Simone V. Gill
- College of Health and Rehabilitation Science, Sargent College, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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McClymont J, Savage R, Pataky TC, Crompton R, Charles J, Bates KT. Intra-subject sample size effects in plantar pressure analyses. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11660. [PMID: 34221737 PMCID: PMC8236230 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Recent work using large datasets (>500 records per subject) has demonstrated seemingly high levels of step-to-step variation in peak plantar pressure within human individuals during walking. One intuitive consequence of this variation is that smaller sample sizes (e.g., 10 steps per subject) may be quantitatively and qualitatively inaccurate and fail to capture the variance in plantar pressure of individuals seen in larger data sets. However, this remains quantitatively unexplored reflecting a lack of detailed investigation of intra-subject sample size effects in plantar pressure analysis. Methods Here we explore the sensitivity of various plantar pressure metrics to intra-subject sample size (number of steps per subject) using a random subsampling analysis. We randomly and incrementally subsample large data sets (>500 steps per subject) to compare variability in three metric types at sample sizes of 5–400 records: (1) overall whole-record mean and maximum pressure; (2) single-pixel values from five locations across the foot; and (3) the sum of pixel-level variability (measured by mean square error, MSE) from the whole plantar surface. Results Our results indicate that the central tendency of whole-record mean and maximum pressure within and across subjects show only minor sensitivity to sample size >200 steps. However, <200 steps, and particularly <50 steps, the range of overall mean and maximum pressure values yielded by our subsampling analysis increased considerably resulting in potential qualitative error in analyses of pressure changes with speed within-subjects and in comparisons of relative pressure magnitudes across subjects at a given speed. Our analysis revealed considerable variability in the absolute and relative response of the single pixel centroids of five regions to random subsampling. As the number of steps analysed decreased, the absolute value ranges were highest in the areas of highest pressure (medial forefoot and hallux), while the largest relative changes were seen in areas of lower pressure (the midfoot). Our pixel-level measure of variability by MSE across the whole-foot was highly sensitive to our manipulation of sample size, such that the range in MSE was exponentially larger in smaller subsamples. Random subsampling showed that the range in pixel-level MSE only came within 5% of the overall sample size in subsamples of >400 steps. The range in pixel-level MSE at low subsamples (<50) was 25–75% higher than that of the full datasets of >500 pressure records per subject. Overall, therefore, we demonstrate a high probability that the very small sample sizes (n < 20 records), which are routinely used in human and animal studies, capture a relatively low proportion of variance evident in larger plantar pressure data set, and thus may not accurately reflect the true population mean.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliet McClymont
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Russell Savage
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Todd C Pataky
- Department of Human Health Sciences, Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Robin Crompton
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - James Charles
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Karl T Bates
- Department of Musculoskeletal & Ageing Science, Institute of Life Course & Medical Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
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Footprint evidence of early hominin locomotor diversity at Laetoli, Tanzania. Nature 2021; 600:468-471. [PMID: 34853470 PMCID: PMC8674131 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-04187-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Bipedal trackways discovered in 1978 at Laetoli site G, Tanzania and dated to 3.66 million years ago are widely accepted as the oldest unequivocal evidence of obligate bipedalism in the human lineage1-3. Another trackway discovered two years earlier at nearby site A was partially excavated and attributed to a hominin, but curious affinities with bears (ursids) marginalized its importance to the paleoanthropological community, and the location of these footprints fell into obscurity3-5. In 2019, we located, excavated and cleaned the site A trackway, producing a digital archive using 3D photogrammetry and laser scanning. Here we compare the footprints at this site with those of American black bears, chimpanzees and humans, and we show that they resemble those of hominins more than ursids. In fact, the narrow step width corroborates the original interpretation of a small, cross-stepping bipedal hominin. However, the inferred foot proportions, gait parameters and 3D morphologies of footprints at site A are readily distinguished from those at site G, indicating that a minimum of two hominin taxa with different feet and gaits coexisted at Laetoli.
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Reeves CL, Shane AM, Sahli H, Togher C. Revision of the Malaligned Ankle Arthrodesis. Clin Podiatr Med Surg 2020; 37:475-487. [PMID: 32471613 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpm.2020.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A malaligned ankle arthrodesis is a painful and complicated pathology. Deformities may be present in the frontal, sagittal, or transverse plane or a combination of planes. Thorough preoperative evaluation of the deformity and the patient as a whole is crucial to successful revision. Surgical site for revision should be based on center of rotation of angulation, when possible. Revision commonly is performed through opening wedge osteotomy. Closing wedge and focal dome osteotomies, however, are excellent options. Revision also may be performed through external fixation or total ankle replacement. Although the literature is not rich with data, the options discussed provide favorable results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher L Reeves
- Advent Health East Orlando Podiatric Surgery Residency, Orlando Foot and Ankle Clinic- Upperline Health, 2111 Glenwood Drive Suite 104, Winter Park, FL 32792, USA.
| | - Amber M Shane
- Department of Podiatric Surgery Advent Health System, Advent Health East Orlando Podiatric Surgery Residency, Orlando Foot and Ankle Clinic- Upperline Health, 250 North Alafaya Trail Suite 115, Orlando, FL 32828, USA
| | - Hannah Sahli
- Department of Podiatric Surgery AdventHealth System, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Cody Togher
- Department of Podiatric Surgery AdventHealth System, Orlando, FL, USA
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8
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Komza K, Skinner MM. First metatarsal trabecular bone structure in extant hominoids and Swartkrans hominins. J Hum Evol 2019; 131:1-21. [PMID: 31182196 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Changes in first metatarsal (MT1) morphology within the hominin clade are crucial for reconstructing the evolution of a forefoot adapted for human-like gait. Studies of the external morphology of the MT1 in humans, non-human apes, and fossil hominins have documented changes in its robusticity, epiphyseal shape and its articulation with the medial cuneiform. Here, we test whether trabecular structure in the MT1 reflects different loading patterns in the forefoot across extant large apes and humans, and within this comparative context, infer locomotor behavior in two fossil hominins from Swartkrans, South Africa. Microtomographic scans were collected from the MT1 of Pongo sp. (n = 6), Gorilla gorilla (n = 10), Pan troglodytes (n = 10), Homo sapiens (n = 11), as well as SKX 5017 (Paranthropus robustus), and SK 1813 (Hominin gen. sp. indet.). Trabecular structure was quantified within the head and base using a 'whole-epiphysis' approach with medtool 4.2. We found that modern humans displayed relatively higher bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the dorsal region of each epiphysis and a higher overall degree of anisotropy (DA), whereas great apes showed higher BV/TV in the plantar regions, reflecting dorsiflexion at the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint in the former and plantarflexion in the latter. Both fossils displayed low DA, with SKX 5017 showing a hyper-dorsal concentration of trabecular bone in the head (similar to humans), while SK 1813 showed a more central trabecular distribution not seen in either humans or non-human apes. Additionally, we found differences between non-human apes, modern humans, and the fossil taxa in trabecular spacing (Tb.Sp.), number (Tb.N.), and thickness (Tb.th.). While low DA in both fossils suggests increased mobility of the MT1, differences in their trabecular distributions could indicate variable locomotion in these Pleistocene hominins (recognizing that the juvenile status of SK 1813 is a potential confounding factor). In particular, evidence for consistent loading in hyper-dorsiflexion in SKX 5017 would suggest locomotor behaviors beyond human-like toe off during terrestrial locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Komza
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Canada; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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9
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Simpson SW, Levin NE, Quade J, Rogers MJ, Semaw S. Ardipithecus ramidus postcrania from the Gona Project area, Afar Regional State, Ethiopia. J Hum Evol 2019; 129:1-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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10
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DeSilva J, McNutt E, Benoit J, Zipfel B. One small step: A review of Plio‐Pleistocene hominin foot evolution. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168 Suppl 67:63-140. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy DeSilva
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Ellison McNutt
- Department of AnthropologyDartmouth College Hanover New Hampshire
| | - Julien Benoit
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
| | - Bernhard Zipfel
- Evolutionary Studies Institute and School of GeosciencesUniversity of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg South Africa
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11
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Foot typology, body weight distribution, and postural stability of adolescent elite soccer players: A 3-year longitudinal study. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0204578. [PMID: 30265689 PMCID: PMC6162085 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0204578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The unique foot morphology and distinctive functions facilitate complex tasks and strategies such as standing, walking, and running. In those weight-bearing activities, postural stability (PS) plays an important role. Correlations among foot type, PS, and other musculoskeletal problems that increase sport injury risk are known. However, long-term associations among the foot type, the PS, and body weight (BW) distribution are lacking. Thus, the purpose of this study was to longitudinally identify changes in foot morphology, PS, and symmetry in BW distribution during adolescence among elite male soccer players. Methods Thirty-five Czech elite male soccer players (age, 15.49 ± 0.61 years; BW, 64.11 ± 6.16 kg; body height, 174.62 ± 5.71 cm) underwent foot type, PS, and BW distribution measurements during 3 consecutive years (T1, T2, T3). The Chippaux-Smirak index (CSI), BW distribution, and centre of pressure (COP) displacement (total traveled way [TTW]) of each player for the preferred (PL) and non-preferred leg (NL) were acquired. Repeated-measures analysis of variance (RM ANOVA), Bonferroni´s post hoc tests, and partial eta-squared (ηp2) coefficient were used for investigating the effect of time on selected variables and effect size evaluation. Results Statistically significant effect of time on CSI values (PL: F2,68 = 5.08, p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.13 and NL: F2,68 = 10.87, p < 0.01, ηp2 = 0.24) and COP displacement values (PL: F2,68 = 5.07, p <0.01, ηp2 = 0.13; NL: F2,68 = 3.53, p <0.05, ηp2 = 0.09) for both legs over 3-years period was identified. Furthermore, the Bonferroni´s post hoc analysis revealed a significant improvement of PS values in the PL (TTWT1 = 1617.11 ± 520.22 mm vs. TTWT2 = 1405.29 ± 462.76, p < 0.05; and between TTWT1 = 1617.11 ± 520.22 mm vs. TTWT3 = 1370.46 ± 373.94, p < 0.05). Only BW distribution parameter showed no significant differences, although slightly improved over time. Conclusions We observed changes in foot typology, PS, and BW distribution in young elite male soccer players during 3 consecutive years. Results demonstrated that changes in PS and body weight distribution under the high-load sport conditions during adolescence may improve with aging, except for foot morphology. Therefore, foot morphology should be carefully monitored to minimize sport injury risk in professional young soccer players during adolescence. Further research is necessary to determine more clear associations between these parameters, soccer-related injuries, and sport performances.
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Inter-ray variation in metatarsal strength properties in humans and African apes: Implications for inferring bipedal biomechanics in the Olduvai Hominid 8 foot. J Hum Evol 2018; 121:147-165. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2017] [Revised: 02/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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13
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Foot strength and stiffness are related to footwear use in a comparison of minimally- vs. conventionally-shod populations. Sci Rep 2018; 8:3679. [PMID: 29487321 PMCID: PMC5829167 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21916-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The longitudinal arch (LA) helps stiffen the foot during walking, but many people in developed countries suffer from flat foot, a condition characterized by reduced LA stiffness that can impair gait. Studies have found this condition is rare in people who are habitually barefoot or wear minimal shoes compared to people who wear conventional modern shoes, but the basis for this difference remains unknown. Here we test the hypothesis that the use of shoes with features that restrict foot motion (e.g. arch supports, toe boxes) is associated with weaker foot muscles and reduced foot stiffness. We collected data from minimally-shod men from northwestern Mexico and men from urban/suburban areas in the United States who wear ‘conventional’ shoes. We measured dynamic LA stiffness during walking using kinematic and kinetic data, and the cross-sectional areas of three intrinsic foot muscles using ultrasound. Compared to conventionally-shod individuals, minimally-shod individuals had higher and stiffer LAs, and larger abductor hallucis and abductor digiti minimi muscles. Additionally, abductor hallucis size was positively associated with LA stiffness during walking. Our results suggest that use of conventional modern shoes is associated with weaker intrinsic foot muscles that may predispose individuals to reduced foot stiffness and potentially flat foot.
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14
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Hatala KG, Demes B, Richmond BG. Laetoli footprints reveal bipedal gait biomechanics different from those of modern humans and chimpanzees. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.0235. [PMID: 27488647 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.0235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bipedalism is a key adaptation that shaped human evolution, yet the timing and nature of its evolution remain unclear. Here we use new experimentally based approaches to investigate the locomotor mechanics preserved by the famous Pliocene hominin footprints from Laetoli, Tanzania. We conducted footprint formation experiments with habitually barefoot humans and with chimpanzees to quantitatively compare their footprints to those preserved at Laetoli. Our results show that the Laetoli footprints are morphologically distinct from those of both chimpanzees and habitually barefoot modern humans. By analysing biomechanical data that were collected during the human experiments we, for the first time, directly link differences between the Laetoli and modern human footprints to specific biomechanical variables. We find that the Laetoli hominin probably used a more flexed limb posture at foot strike than modern humans when walking bipedally. The Laetoli footprints provide a clear snapshot of an early hominin bipedal gait that probably involved a limb posture that was slightly but significantly different from our own, and these data support the hypothesis that important evolutionary changes to hominin bipedalism occurred within the past 3.66 Myr.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin G Hatala
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, Department of Anthropology, The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW, Suite 6000, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Brigitte Demes
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Health Sciences Center, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794, USA
| | - Brian G Richmond
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York, NY 10024, USA
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15
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Kitashiro M, Ogihara N, Kokubo T, Matsumoto M, Nakamura M, Nagura T. Age- and sex-associated morphological variations of metatarsal torsional patterns in humans. Clin Anat 2017. [PMID: 28631280 DOI: 10.1002/ca.22944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
It has been demonstrated that the torsional patterns of the metatarsal heads are associated with the presence or absence of the medial longitudinal arch in hominoid feet. The relatively untwisted second metatarsal is unique in humans, but that of the African apes is much more inverted, suggesting that the torsion of the second metatarsal might represent the overall shape and flatness of the foot. Some clinical studies have recently argued that the onset of foot pathologies such as hallux valgus might be related to the torsional pattern of the metatarsals. However, to date, no studies have systematically investigated the morphological variations of the torsional patterns of human metatarsals. In this study, therefore, the aim was to clarify the age- and sex-associated variations in the torsional patterns of human metatarsals using three-dimensional computed tomography. The torsion angles of the five metatarsals were calculated by defining the dorsopalmar vector of the metatarsal base and the vector corresponding to the rotational axis of the metatarsal head. The present result demonstrated that the second metatarsals of females were significantly more inverted with increasing age. Flat foot is known to be most common in elderly women. Whether there is a cause-effect relationship between second metatarsal torsion and flattening of the medial longitudinal arch has yet to be answered, but this study suggested that torsion of the second metatarsal might possibly be used as an indicator for the early diagnosis of flat foot and associated foot pathologies. Clin. Anat. 30:1058-1063, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Naomichi Ogihara
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Kokubo
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Tachikawa Hospital, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Morio Matsumoto
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masaya Nakamura
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeo Nagura
- Department of Clinical Biomechanics, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
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16
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Holowka NB, O'Neill MC, Thompson NE, Demes B. Chimpanzee and human midfoot motion during bipedal walking and the evolution of the longitudinal arch of the foot. J Hum Evol 2017; 104:23-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/13/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Prang TC. Reevaluating the functional implications of Australopithecus afarensis navicular morphology. J Hum Evol 2016; 97:73-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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18
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Trabecular architecture in the StW 352 fossil hominin calcaneus. J Hum Evol 2016; 97:145-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 05/20/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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19
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Prang TC. Conarticular congruence of the hominoid subtalar joint complex with implications for joint function in Plio-Pleistocene hominins. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2016; 160:446-57. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C. Prang
- Center for the Study of Human Origins, Department of Anthropology; New York University; New York, NY 10003
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP)
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20
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Rearfoot posture of Australopithecus sediba and the evolution of the hominin longitudinal arch. Sci Rep 2015; 5:17677. [PMID: 26628197 PMCID: PMC4667273 DOI: 10.1038/srep17677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The longitudinal arch is one of the hallmarks of the human foot but its evolutionary history remains controversial due to the fragmentary nature of the fossil record. In modern humans, the presence of a longitudinal arch is reflected in the angular relationships among the major surfaces of the human talus and calcaneus complex, which is also known as the rearfoot. A complete talus and calcaneus of Australopithecus sediba provide the opportunity to evaluate rearfoot posture in an early hominin for the first time. Here I show that A. sediba is indistinguishable from extant African apes in the angular configuration of its rearfoot, which strongly suggests that it lacked a longitudinal arch. Inferences made from isolated fossils support the hypothesis that Australopithecus afarensis possessed an arched foot. However, tali attributed to temporally younger taxa like Australopithecus africanus and Homo floresiensis are more similar to those of A. sediba. The inferred absence of a longitudinal arch in A. sediba would be biomechanically consistent with prior suggestions of increased midtarsal mobility in this taxon. The morphological patterns in talus and calcaneus angular relationships among fossil hominins suggest that there was diversity in traits associated with the longitudinal arch in the Plio-Pleistocene.
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21
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Dave MH, Mason LW, Hariharan K. Forefoot Deformity in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Comparison of Shod and Unshod Populations. Foot Ankle Spec 2015; 8:378-83. [PMID: 25941210 DOI: 10.1177/1938640015583513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED All reported rheumatoid arthritis (RA) forefoot deformities in the literature thus far have arisen from shoe wearing populations. Our aim in this study was to compare hallucal deformities seen in a shod population with an unshod population. A population comparison was undertaken in 2 specialized foot and ankle units, one in India and one in the United Kingdom. In the shod population, there was 1 hallux varus deformity, 10 without hallucal deformity, and 90 hallux valgus deformities. In contrast, in the unshod population, there were 19 hallux varus deformities and 6 hallux valgus deformities. There was great variability in the lesser toe deformity seen. In the shod population, it was most common to see dorsal subluxation or dislocation, with the fifth toe in a varus position. In the unshod population, the most common lesser toe deformity seen was varus deviation or dislocation. Instability of the metatarsophalangeal joint in the rheumatoid foot predisposes it to significant deformity. In the non-shoe wearing population, intrinsic muscle forces and weight bearing forces are the most likely determinants of the deformity, with hallux varus being a more common presenting problem. In the shod population, the external forces of shoe wear dictate the direction of deformity. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE Prognostic, Level III: Case control study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malhar H Dave
- Abhishek Hospital and Foot and Ankle Centre, Vadodara, Gujarat, India (MHD)Foot and Ankle Unit, University Hospital Aintree, Liverpool, UK (LWM)Foot and Ankle Unit, Royal Gwent Hospital, Aneurin Bevan University Health Board, Newport, UK (KH)
| | - Lyndon W Mason
- Abhishek Hospital and Foot and Ankle Centre, Vadodara, Gujarat, India (MHD)Foot and Ankle Unit, University Hospital Aintree, Liverpool, UK (LWM)Foot and Ankle Unit, Royal Gwent Hospital, Aneurin Bevan University Health Board, Newport, UK (KH)
| | - Kartik Hariharan
- Abhishek Hospital and Foot and Ankle Centre, Vadodara, Gujarat, India (MHD)Foot and Ankle Unit, University Hospital Aintree, Liverpool, UK (LWM)Foot and Ankle Unit, Royal Gwent Hospital, Aneurin Bevan University Health Board, Newport, UK (KH)
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22
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Gill SV, Vessali M, Pratt JA, Watts S, Pratt JS, Raghavan P, DeSilva JM. The Importance of Interdisciplinary Research Training and Community Dissemination. Clin Transl Sci 2015; 8:611-4. [PMID: 26508528 DOI: 10.1111/cts.12330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Funding agencies and institutions are creating initiatives to encourage interdisciplinary research that can be more easily translated into community initiatives to enhance health. Therefore, the current research environment calls for interdisciplinary education and skills to create sustained partnerships with community institutions. However, formalized opportunities in both of these areas are limited for students embarking on research careers. The purpose of this paper is to underscore the historical and current importance of providing interdisciplinary training and community dissemination for research students. We also suggest an approach to begin to address the existing gap. Specifically, we suggest embedding a 10-week summer rotation into existing research curricula with the goals of: (1) providing students with a hands-on interdisciplinary research experience, (2) facilitating dialogue between research students and community settings to disseminate science to the public, and (3) sparking collaborations among researchers who seek to create a way to sustain summer program rotations with grant funding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone V Gill
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Misha Vessali
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jacob A Pratt
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samantha Watts
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Janey S Pratt
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Preeti Raghavan
- Rehabilitation Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
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23
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Fernández PJ, Almécija S, Patel BA, Orr CM, Tocheri MW, Jungers WL. Functional aspects of metatarsal head shape in humans, apes, and Old World monkeys. J Hum Evol 2015; 86:136-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Wall-Scheffler CM, Wagnild J, Wagler E. Human footprint variation while performing load bearing tasks. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118619. [PMID: 25738496 PMCID: PMC4349815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human footprint fossils have provided essential evidence about the evolution of human bipedalism as well as the social dynamics of the footprint makers, including estimates of speed, sex and group composition. Generally such estimates are made by comparing footprint evidence with modern controls; however, previous studies have not accounted for the variation in footprint dimensions coming from load bearing activities. It is likely that a portion of the hominins who created these fossil footprints were carrying a significant load, such as offspring or foraging loads, which caused variation in the footprint which could extend to variation in any estimations concerning the footprint’s maker. To identify significant variation in footprints due to load-bearing tasks, we had participants (N = 30, 15 males and 15 females) walk at a series of speeds carrying a 20kg pack on their back, side and front. Paint was applied to the bare feet of each participant to create footprints that were compared in terms of foot length, foot width and foot area. Female foot length and width increased during multiple loaded conditions. An appreciation of footprint variability associated with carrying loads adds an additional layer to our understanding of the behavior and morphology of extinct hominin populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara M. Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Janelle Wagnild
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Wagler
- Arizona School of Podiatric Medicine, Glendale, Arizona, United States of America
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25
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DeSilva J, Bonne-Annee R, Swanson Z, Gill C, Sobel M, Uy J, Gill S. Midtarsal break variation in modern humans: Functional causes, skeletal correlates, and paleontological implications. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 156:543-52. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.M. DeSilva
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - R. Bonne-Annee
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - Z. Swanson
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
| | - C.M. Gill
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Radiology and Pappas Center for Neuro-Oncology; Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School; Boston MA 02114
| | - M. Sobel
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Anthropology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706
| | - J. Uy
- Department of Anthropology; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Anthropology; University of Wisconsin-Madison; Madison WI 53706
| | - S.V. Gill
- Department of Occupational Therapy; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Program in Rehabilitation Sciences (PhD), Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Medicine; Boston University; Boston MA 02118
- Undergraduate Program in Neuroscience; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences; Boston University; Boston MA 02215
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26
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Griffin NL, Miller CE, Schmitt D, D'Août K. Understanding the evolution of the windlass mechanism of the human foot from comparative anatomy: Insights, obstacles, and future directions. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 156:1-10. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole L. Griffin
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology; Temple University School of Medicine; Philadelphia PA 19140
| | | | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology; Duke University; NC
| | - Kristiaan D'Août
- Department of Musculoskeletal Biology; Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease, University of Liverpool; Liverpool UK
- Department of Biology; University of Antwerp, Antwerp; Belgium
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27
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Greiner TM, Ball KA. Kinematics of primate midfoot flexibility. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 155:610-20. [PMID: 25234343 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study describes a unique assessment of primate intrinsic foot joint kinematics based upon bone pin rigid cluster tracking. It challenges the assumption that human evolution resulted in a reduction of midfoot flexibility, which has been identified in other primates as the "midtarsal break." Rigid cluster pins were inserted into the foot bones of human, chimpanzee, baboon, and macaque cadavers. The positions of these bone pins were monitored during a plantarflexion-dorsiflexion movement cycle. Analysis resolved flexion-extension movement patterns and the associated orientation of rotational axes for the talonavicular, calcaneocuboid, and lateral cubometatarsal joints. Results show that midfoot flexibility occurs primarily at the talonavicular and cubometatarsal joints. The rotational magnitudes are roughly similar between humans and chimps. There is also a similarity among evaluated primates in the observed rotations of the lateral cubometatarsal joint, but there was much greater rotation observed for the talonavicular joint, which may serve to differentiate monkeys from the hominines. It appears that the capability for a midtarsal break is present within the human foot. A consideration of the joint axes shows that the medial and lateral joints have opposing orientations, which has been associated with a rigid locking mechanism in the human foot. However, the potential for this same mechanism also appears in the chimpanzee foot. These findings demonstrate a functional similarity within the midfoot of the hominines. Therefore, the kinematic capabilities and restrictions for the skeletal linkages of the human foot may not be as unique as has been previously suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas M Greiner
- Department of Health Professions, University of Wisconsin- La Crosse, La Crosse, WI, 54601
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28
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Kraft TS, Venkataraman VV, Dominy NJ. A natural history of human tree climbing. J Hum Evol 2014; 71:105-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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29
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Thompson NE, Holowka NB, O'Neill MC, Larson SG. Brief communication: Cineradiographic analysis of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) talonavicular and calcaneocuboid joints. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2014; 154:604-8. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathan E. Thompson
- Department of Anatomical Sciences; Stony Brook University School of Medicine; Stony Brook NY 11794-8081
| | - Nicholas B. Holowka
- Interdepartmental Doctoral Program in Anthropological Sciences; Stony Brook University; Stony Brook NY 11794-4364
| | - Matthew C. O'Neill
- Department of Anatomical Sciences; Stony Brook University School of Medicine; Stony Brook NY 11794-8081
| | - Susan G. Larson
- Department of Anatomical Sciences; Stony Brook University School of Medicine; Stony Brook NY 11794-8081
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30
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Proctor DJ. Proximal metatarsal articular surface shape and the evolution of a rigid lateral foot in hominins. J Hum Evol 2013; 65:761-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/17/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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