Regioselective Dichlorination of a Non-Activated Aliphatic Carbon Atom and Phenolic Bismethylation by a Multifunctional Fungal Flavoenzyme

Structure and Activity of the Thermophilic Tryptophan-6 Halogenase BorH

Flavin-dependent halogenases carry out regioselective aryl halide synthesis in aqueous solution at ambient temperature and neutral pH using benign halide salts, making them attractive catalysts for green chemistry. BorH and BorF, two proteins encoded by the biosynthetic gene cluster for the chlorinated bisindole alkaloid borregomycin A, are the halogenase and flavin reductase subunits of a tryptophan-6-halogenase. Quantitative conversion of l-tryptophan (Trp) to 6-chlorotryptophan could be achieved using 1.2 mol % BorH and 2 mol % BorF. The optimal reaction temperature for Trp chlorination is 45 °C, and the melting temperatures of BorH and BorF are 48 and 50 °C respectively, which are higher than the thermal parameters for most other halogenases previously studied. Steady-state kinetic analysis of Trp chlorination by BorH determined parameters of k_cat =4.42 min^-1 , and K_M of 9.78 μm at 45 °C. BorH exhibits a broad substrate scope, chlorinating and brominating a variety of aromatic substrates with and without indole groups. Chlorination of Trp at a 100 mg scale with 52 % crude yield, using 0.2 mol % BorH indicates that industrial scale biotransformations using BorH/BorF are feasible. The X-ray crystal structure of BorH with bound Trp provides additional evidence for the model that regioselectivity is determined by substrate positioning in the active site, showing C6 of Trp juxtaposed with the catalytic Lys79 in the same binding pose previously observed in the structure of Thal.

Setosphaerine A: A New Chlorinated Polyketide Isolated From the Entomogenous Fungus Setosphaeria rostrata

A new chlorinated polyketide setosphaerine A (1), together with 3 known ones penicipyran D (2), 7- O-demethymonocerin (3), and monocerin (4), was isolated from the entomogenous fungus Setosphaeria rostrata. The structure of compound 1 was established on the basis of 1D/2D Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopic and High Resolution Electro Spray Ionization Mass Spectra (HR-ESI-MS) data. Compounds 1 to 4 showed moderate cytotoxicity against 3 human tumor cell lines MCF-7, MGC-803, and Hela with IC50 values ranging from 33 to 243 nM.

Understanding and Improving the Activity of Flavin-Dependent Halogenases via Random and Targeted Mutagenesis

Flavin-dependent halogenases (FDHs) catalyze the halogenation of organic substrates by coordinating reactions of reduced flavin, molecular oxygen, and chloride. Targeted and random mutagenesis of these enzymes have been used to both understand and alter their reactivity. These studies have led to insights into residues essential for catalysis and FDH variants with improved stability, expanded substrate scope, and altered site selectivity. Mutations throughout FDH structures have contributed to all of these advances. More recent studies have sought to rationalize the impact of these mutations on FDH function and to identify new FDHs to deepen our understanding of this enzyme class and to expand their utility for biocatalytic applications.