Ortho-Stabilized (18) F-Azido Click Agents and their Application in PET Imaging with Single-Stranded DNA Aptamers

Spirocyclic Iodonium Ylides for Fluorine-18 Radiolabeling of Non-Activated Arenes: From Concept to Clinical Research

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a powerful imaging tool for drug discovery, clinical diagnosis, and monitoring of disease progression. Fluorine-18 is the most common radionuclide used for PET, but advances in radiotracer development have been limited by the historical lack of methodologies and precursors amenable to radiolabeling with fluorine-18. Radiolabeling of electron-rich (hetero)aromatic rings remains a long-standing challenge in the production of PET radiopharmaceuticals. In this personal account, we discuss the history of spirocyclic iodonium ylide precursors, from inception to applications in clinical research, for the incorporation of fluorine-18 into complex non-activated (hetero)aromatic rings.

Exploring the role of halogen bonding in iodonium ylides: insights into unexpected reactivity and reaction control

Halogen bonding is commonly found with iodine-containing molecules, and it arises when Lewis bases interact with iodine's σ-holes. Halogen bonding and σ-holes have been encountered in numerous monovalent and hypervalent iodine-containing compounds, and in 2022 σ-holes were computationally confirmed and quantified in the iodonium ylide subset of hypervalent iodine compounds. In light of this new discovery, this article provides an overview of the reactions of iodonium ylides in which halogen bonding has been invoked. Herein, we summarize key discoveries and mechanistic proposals from the early iodonium ylide literature that invoked halogen bonding-type mechanisms, as well as recent reports of reactions between iodonium ylides and Lewis basic nucleophiles in which halogen bonding has been specifically invoked. The reactions discussed herein are organized to enable the reader to build an understanding of how halogen bonding might impact yield and chemoselectivity outcomes in reactions of iodonium ylides. Areas of focus include nucleophile σ-hole selectivity, and how ylide structural modifications and intramolecular halogen bonding (e.g., the ortho-effect) can improve ylide stability or solubility, and alter reaction outcomes.

Quantitative Evaluation of a Multimodal Aptamer-Targeted Long-Circulating Polymer for Tumor Targeting

Aptamers are promising targeting agents for imaging and therapy of numerous diseases, including cancer. However, a significant shortcoming of aptamers is their poor stability and fast excretion, limiting their application in vivo. Common strategies to overcome these challenges is to chemically modify aptamers in order to increase their stability and/or to apply formulation technologies such as conjugating them to polymers or nanocarriers in order to increase their circulation half-life. This is expected to result in improved cellular uptake or retention to passively targeted nanomedicines. Herein, we report a modular conjugation strategy based on click chemistry between functionalized tetrazines and trans-cyclooctene (TCO), for the modification of high molecular weight hyperbranched polyglycerol (HPG) with sgc8 aptamer, fluorescent dyes, and ¹¹¹In. Our data indicate strong affinity of sgc8 against a range of solid tumor-derived cell lines that have previously not been tested with this aptamer. Nevertheless, nonspecific uptake of scrambled ssDNA-functionalized HPG in cells highlights inherent challenges of aptamer-targeted probes that remain to be solved for clinical translation. We validate HPG-sgc8 as a nontoxic nanoprobe with high affinity against MDA-MB-468 breast and A431 lung cancer cells and show significantly increased plasma stability compared to free sgc8. In vivo quantitative SPECT/CT imaging indicates EPR-mediated tumor uptake of HPG-sgc8 and nontargeted or scrambled ssDNA-conjugated HPG but no statistically significant difference between these formulations in terms of total tumor uptake or retention. Our study emphasizes the need for stringent controls and quantification in the evaluation of aptamer-targeted probes. For this purpose, our versatile synthesis strategy provides a simple approach for the design and evaluation of long-circulating aptamer-conjugated nanoformulations.

Aptamer-Based Immunotheranostic Strategies

The escape from immune surveillance is a hallmark of cancer progression. The classic immune checkpoint molecules PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA-4, LAG-3, TIM-3 novel ones are part of a sophisticated system of up- and downmodulation of the immune system, which is unregulated in cancer. In recent years, there have been remarkable advances in the development of targeting strategies, focused principally on immunotherapies aiming at blocking those molecules involved in the evasion of the immune system. However, there are still challenges to predicting their efficacy due to the wide heterogeneity of clinical responses. Thus, there is a need to develop new strategies, and theranostics has much to contribute in this field. Besides that, aptamers have emerged as promising molecules with the potential to generate a huge impact in the immunotheranostic field. They are single-stranded oligonucleotides with a unique self-folding tridimensional structure, with high affinity and specificity for the target. In particular, their small size and physicochemical characteristics make them a versatile tool for designing theranostic strategies. Here, we review the progress in theranostic strategies based on aptamers against immune checkpoints, and highlight the potential of those approaches.

Radiochemical Synthesis of 4-[18F]FluorobenzylAzide and Its Conjugation with EGFR-Specific Aptamers

Central nervous system tumors related to gliomas are of neuroectodermal origin and cover about 30% of all primary brain tumors. Glioma is not susceptible to any therapy and surgical attack remains one of the main approaches to its treatment. Preoperative tumor imaging methods, such as positron emission tomography (PET), are currently used to distinguish malignant tissue to increase the accuracy of glioma removal. However, PET is lacking a specific visualization of cells possessing certain molecular markers. Here, we report an application of aptamers to enhancing specificity in imaging tumor cells bearing the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Glioblastoma is characterized by increased EGFR expression, as well as mutations of this receptor associated with active division, migration, and adhesion of tumor cells. Since 2021, EGFR has been included into the WHO classification of gliomas as a molecular genetic marker. To obtain conjugates of aptamers GR20 and GOL1-specific to EGFR, a 4-[¹⁸F]fluorobenzylazide radiotracer was used as a synthon. For the production of the synthon, a method of automatic synthesis on an Eckert & Ziegler research module was adapted and modified using spirocyclic iodonium ylide as a precursor. Conjugation of 4-[¹⁸F]fluorobenzylazide and alkyne-modified aptamers was carried out using Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) with/without the TBTA ligand. As a result, it was possible to obtain ¹⁸F-labelled conjugates with 97% radiochemical purity for [¹⁸F]FB-GR20 and 98% for [¹⁸F]FB-GOL1. The obtained conjugates can be used for further studies in PET analysis on model animals with grafted glioblastoma.

Site-Specific Radioiodination of Oligonucleotides with a Phenolic Element in a Programmable Approach

Radioiodination of oligonucleotides provides an extra modality for nucleic acid-based theranostics with potential applications. Herein, we report the design and synthesis of a phosphoramidite embedded with a phenolic moiety and demonstrate that oligonucleotides can be readily functionalized with phenol as a precursor by general DNA synthesis. It was identified that the introduction of the precursor does not block the specificity of an aptamer, and the radioiodination is applicable to both DNA and RNA oligonucleotides in a site-specific approach with a commercial kit.

Fluorine-18: Radiochemistry and Target-Specific PET Molecular Probes Design

The positron emission tomography (PET) molecular imaging technology has gained universal value as a critical tool for assessing biological and biochemical processes in living subjects. The favorable chemical, physical, and nuclear characteristics of fluorine-18 (97% β⁺ decay, 109.8 min half-life, 635 keV positron energy) make it an attractive nuclide for labeling and molecular imaging. It stands that 2-[¹⁸F]fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose ([¹⁸F]FDG) is the most popular PET tracer. Besides that, a significantly abundant proportion of PET probes in clinical use or under development contain a fluorine or fluoroalkyl substituent group. For the reasons given above, ¹⁸F-labeled radiotracer design has become a hot topic in radiochemistry and radiopharmaceutics. Over the past decades, we have witnessed a rapid growth in ¹⁸F-labeling methods owing to the development of new reagents and catalysts. This review aims to provide an overview of strategies in radiosynthesis of [¹⁸F]fluorine-containing moieties with nucleophilic [¹⁸F]fluorides since 2015.

Recent Advances in Self-Assembled DNA Nanostructures for Bioimaging

DNA nanotechnology has been proven to be a powerful platform to assist the development of imaging probes for biomedical research. The attractive features of DNA nanostructures, such as nanometer precision, controllable size, programmable functions, and biocompatibility, have enabled researchers to design and customize DNA nanoprobes for bioimaging applications. However, DNA probes with low molecular weights (e.g., 10-100 nt) generally suffer from low stability in physiological buffer environments. To improve the stability of DNA nanoprobes in such environments, DNA nanostructures can be designed with relatively larger sizes and defined shapes. In addition, the established modification methods for DNA nanostructures are also essential in enhancing their properties and performances in a physiological environment. In this review, we begin with a brief recap of the development of DNA nanostructures including DNA tiles, DNA origami, and multifunctional DNA nanostructures with modifications. Then we highlight the recent advances of DNA nanostructures for bioimaging, emphasizing the latest developments in probe modifications and DNA-PAINT imaging. Multiple imaging modules for intracellular biomolecular imaging and cell membrane biomarkers recognition are also summarized. In the end, we discuss the advantages and challenges of applying DNA nanostructures in bioimaging research and speculate on its future developments.

Advances in aptamer-based nuclear imaging

Aptamers are short oligonucleotides that bind to specific target molecules. They have been extensively explored in biomedical applications, including biosensing, medical imaging, and disease treatment. Their adjustable affinity for specific biomarkers stimulates more translational efforts, such as nuclear imaging of tumors in preclinical and clinical settings. In this review, we present recent advances of aptamer-based nuclear imaging and compare aptamer tracers with other biogenic probes in forms of peptides, nanobodies, monoclonal antibodies, and antibody fragments. Fundamental properties of aptamer-based radiotracers are highlighted and potential directions to improve aptamer's imaging performance are discussed. Despite many translational obstacles to overcome, we envision aptamers to be a versatile tool for cancer nuclear imaging in the near future.

Discovery of a highly specific 18F-labeled PET ligand for phosphodiesterase 10A enabled by novel spirocyclic iodonium ylide radiofluorination

As a member of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase (PDE) enzyme family, PDE10A is in charge of the degradation of cyclic adenosine (cAMP) and guanosine monophosphates (cGMP). While PDE10A is primarily expressed in the medium spiny neurons of the striatum, it has been implicated in a variety of neurological disorders. Indeed, inhibition of PDE10A has proven to be of potential use for the treatment of central nervous system (CNS) pathologies caused by dysfunction of the basal ganglia–of which the striatum constitutes the largest component. A PDE10A-targeted positron emission tomography (PET) radioligand would enable a better assessment of the pathophysiologic role of PDE10A, as well as confirm the relationship between target occupancy and administrated dose of a given drug candidate, thus accelerating the development of effective PDE10A inhibitors. In this study, we designed and synthesized a novel ¹⁸F-aryl PDE10A PET radioligand, codenamed [¹⁸F]P10A-1910 ([¹⁸F]9), in high radiochemical yield and molar activity via spirocyclic iodonium ylide-mediated radiofluorination. [¹⁸F]9 possessed good in vitro binding affinity (IC₅₀ = 2.1 nmol/L) and selectivity towards PDE10A. Further, [¹⁸F]9 exhibited reasonable lipophilicity (logD = 3.50) and brain permeability (P_app > 10 × 10⁻⁶ cm/s in MDCK-MDR1 cells). PET imaging studies of [¹⁸F]9 revealed high striatal uptake and excellent in vivo specificity with reversible tracer kinetics. Preclinical studies in rodents revealed an improved plasma and brain stability of [¹⁸F]9 when compared to the current reference standard for PDE10A-targeted PET, [¹⁸F]MNI659. Further, dose–response experiments with a series of escalating doses of PDE10A inhibitor 1 in rhesus monkey brains confirmed the utility of [¹⁸F]9 for evaluating target occupancy in vivo in higher species. In conclusion, our results indicated that [¹⁸F]9 is a promising PDE10A PET radioligand for clinical translation.

Recent progress in the application of iodonium ylides in organic synthesis

This review summarizes the recent advances in the synthetic application of iodonium ylides covering 2017 to 2022.

Transition-metal-free nucleophilic 211At-astatination of spirocyclic aryliodonium ylides

The transition-metal-free 211At-astatination of spirocyclic aryliodonium ylides via a nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction is described. This method enables the preparation of 211At-radiolabeled compounds derived from multi-functionalized molecules and heteroarenes in good to excellent radiochemical yields.

Positron Emission Tomography Imaging of the Endocannabinoid System: Opportunities and Challenges in Radiotracer Development

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is involved in a wide range of biological functions and comprises cannabinoid receptors and enzymes responsible for endocannabinoid synthesis and degradation. Over the past 2 decades, significant advances toward developing drugs and positron emission tomography (PET) tracers targeting different components of the ECS have been made. Herein, we summarized the recent development of PET tracers for imaging cannabinoid receptors 1 (CB1R) and 2 (CB2R) as well as the key enzymes monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), particularly focusing on PET neuroimaging applications. State-of-the-art PET tracers for the ECS will be reviewed including their chemical design, pharmacological properties, radiolabeling, as well as preclinical and human PET imaging. In addition, this review addresses the current challenges for ECS PET biomarker development and highlights the important role of PET ligands to study disease pathophysiology as well as to facilitate drug discovery.

Synthesis and Preclinical Evaluation of an 18F-Labeled Synaptic Vesicle Glycoprotein 2A PET Imaging Probe: [18F]SynVesT-2

Synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2A (SV2A) is a 12-pass transmembrane glycoprotein ubiquitously expressed in presynaptic vesicles. In vivo imaging of SV2A using PET has potential applications in the diagnosis and prognosis of a variety of neuropsychiatric diseases, e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, autism, epilepsy, stroke, traumatic brain injury, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, etc. Herein, we report the synthesis and evaluation of a new ¹⁸F-labeled SV2A PET imaging probe, [¹⁸F]SynVesT-2, which possesses fast in vivo binding kinetics and high specific binding signals in non-human primate brain.

A concisely automated synthesis of TSPO radiotracer [18 F]FDPA based on spirocyclic iodonium ylide method and validation for human use

Fluorine-18 labeled N,N-diethyl-2-(2-(4-(2-fluoroethoxy)phenyl)-5,7-dimethylpyrazolo[1,5-a]pyrimidin-3-yl)acetamide ([¹⁸ F]FDPA) is a potent and selective radiotracer for positron-emission tomography (PET) imaging of the translocator protein 18 kDa (TSPO). Our previous in vitro and in vivo evaluations have proven that this tracer is promising for further human translation. Our study addresses the need to streamline the automatic synthesis of this radiotracer to make it more accessible for widespread clinical evaluation and application. Here, we successfully demonstrate a one-step radiolabeling of [¹⁸ F]FDPA based on a novel spirocyclic iodonium ylide (SCIDY) precursor using tetra-n-butyl ammonium methanesulfonate (TBAOMs), which has demonstrated the highest radiochemical yields and molar activity from readily available [¹⁸ F]fluoride ion. The nucleophilic radiofluorination was completed on a GE TRACERlab FX2 N synthesis module, and the formulated [¹⁸ F]FDPA was obtained in nondecay corrected (n.d.c) radiochemical yields of 15.6 ± 4.2%, with molar activities of 529.2 ± 22.5 GBq/μmol (14.3 ± 0.6 Ci/μmol) at the end of synthesis (60 minutes, n = 3) and validated for human use. This methodology facilitates efficient synthesis of [¹⁸ F]FDPA in a commercially available synthesis module, which would be broadly applicable for routine production and widespread clinical PET imaging studies.

Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of 18F-Labeled Monoacylglycerol Lipase Inhibitors as Novel Positron Emission Tomography Probes

Dysfunction of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is associated with several psychopathological disorders, including drug addiction and neurodegenerative diseases. Herein we design, synthesize, and evaluate several irreversible fluorine-containing MAGL inhibitors for positron emission tomography (PET) ligand development. Compound 6 (identified from a therapeutic agent) was advanced for ¹⁸F-labeling via a novel spirocyclic iodonium ylide (SCIDY) strategy, which demonstrated high brain permeability and excellent specific binding. This work supports further development of novel ¹⁸F-labeled MAGL PET probes.

Facile 18F labeling of non-activated arenes via a spirocyclic iodonium(III) ylide method and its application in the synthesis of the mGluR5 PET radiopharmaceutical [18F]FPEB

Non-activated (electron-rich and/or sterically hindered) arenes are prevalent chemical scaffolds in pharmaceuticals and positron emission tomography (PET) diagnostics. Despite substantial efforts to develop a general method to introduce ¹⁸F into these moieties for molecular imaging by PET, there is an urgent and unmet need for novel radiofluorination strategies that result in sufficiently labeled tracers to enable human imaging. Herein, we describe an efficient method that relies on spirocyclic iodonium ylide (SCIDY) precursors for one-step and regioselective radiofluorination, as well as proof-of-concept translation to the radiosynthesis of a clinically useful PET tracer, 3-[¹⁸F]fluoro-5-[(pyridin-3-yl)ethynyl] benzonitrile ([¹⁸F]FPEB). The protocol begins with the preparation of a SCIDY precursor for FPEB, followed by radiosynthesis of [¹⁸F]FPEB, by either manual operation or an automated synthesis module. [¹⁸F]FPEB can be obtained in quantities >7.4 GBq (200 mCi), ready for injection (20 ± 5%, non-decay corrected), and has excellent chemical and radiochemical purity (>98%) as well as high molar activity (666 ± 51.8 GBq/μmol; 18 ± 1.4 Ci/μmol). The total time for the synthesis and purification of the corresponding labeling SCIDY precursor is 10 h. The subsequent radionuclide production, experimental setup, ¹⁸F labeling, and formulation of a product that is ready for injection require 2 h.

Chemistry for Positron Emission Tomography: Recent Advances in 11 C-, 18 F-, 13 N-, and 15 O-Labeling Reactions

Positron emission tomography (PET) is a molecular imaging technology that provides quantitative information about function and metabolism in biological processes in vivo for disease diagnosis and therapy assessment. The broad application and rapid advances of PET has led to an increased demand for new radiochemical methods to synthesize highly specific molecules bearing positron-emitting radionuclides. This Review provides an overview of commonly used labeling reactions through examples of clinically relevant PET tracers and highlights the most recent developments and breakthroughs over the past decade, with a focus on 11 C, 18 F, 13 N, and 15 O.

Dynamic, Bioresponsive Hydrogels via Changes in DNA Aptamer Conformation

DNA aptamers are integrated into synthetic hydrogel networks with the aim of creating hydrogels that undergo volume changes when exposed to target molecules. Specifically, single-stranded DNA aptamers in cDNA-bound, extended state are incorporated into hydrogel networks as cross-links, so that the nanoscale conformational change of DNA aptamers upon binding to target molecules will induce macroscopic volume decreases of hydrogels. Hydrogels incorporating adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-binding aptamers undergo controllable volume decreases of up to 40.3 ± 4.6% when exposed to ATP, depending on the concentration of DNA aptamers incorporated in the hydrogel network, temperature, and target molecule concentration. Importantly, this approach can be generalized to aptamer sequences with distinct binding targets, as demonstrated here that hydrogels incorporating an insulin-binding aptamer undergo volume changes in response to soluble insulin. This work provides an example of bioinspired hydrogels that undergo macroscopic volume changes that stem from conformational shifts in resident DNA-based cross-links.

Nucleic acid aptamers in diagnosis of colorectal cancer

Nucleic acid aptamers are promising recognition ligands for diagnostic applications. They are short DNA or RNA molecules isolated from large random libraries through the Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX) procedure. These molecules, with a particular three-dimensional shape, bind to a wide range of targets from small molecules to whole cells with high affinity and specificity. The unique properties of nucleic acid aptamers including high binding affinity and specificity, thermostability, ease of chemical production, ease of chemical modification, target adaptability, simple storage, resistance to denaturation, low immunogenicity, and low cost make them potential diagnostic tools for clinical use. Colorectal cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in humans and the third leading cause of cancer deaths in the world. Due to low response rate to current therapies in advanced stages of the disease, early detection of CRC can be useful in disease management. This review highlights recent advances in the development of nucleic acid aptamer-based methods for diagnosis, prognosis, and theranosis of colorectal cancer.

Application of aptamers for in vivo molecular imaging and theranostics

Nucleic acid aptamers are small three-dimensional structures of oligonucleotides selected to bind to a target of interest with high affinity and specificity. In vitro, aptamers already compete with antibodies to serve as imaging probes, e.g. for microscopy or flow cytometry. However, they are also increasingly used for in vivo molecular imaging. Accordingly, aptamers have been evaluated over the last twenty years in almost every imaging modality, including single photon emission computed tomography, positron emission tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, fluorescence imaging, echography, and x-ray computed tomography. This review focuses on the studies that were conducted in vivo with aptamer-based imaging probes. It also presents how aptamers have been recently used to develop new types of probes for multimodal imaging and theranostic applications.

Targeted Molecular Imaging Using Aptamers in Cancer

Imaging is not only seeing, but also believing. For targeted imaging modalities, nucleic acid aptamers have features such as superior recognition of structural epitopes and quick uptake in target cells. This explains the emergence of an evolved new class of aptamers into a wide spectrum of imaging applications over the last decade. Genetically encoded biosensors tagged with fluorescent RNA aptamers have been developed as intracellular imaging tools to understand cellular signaling and physiology in live cells. Cancer-specific aptamers labeled with fluorescence have been used for assessment of clinical tissue specimens. Aptamers conjugated with gold nanoparticles have been employed to develop innovative mass spectrometry tissue imaging. Also, use of chemically conjugated cancer-specific aptamers as probes for non-invasive and high-resolution imaging has been transformative for in vivo imaging in multiple cancers.

Imaging Tiny Hepatic Tumor Xenografts via Endoglin-Targeted Paramagnetic/Optical Nanoprobe

Surgery is the mainstay for treating hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, it is a great challenge for surgeons to identify HCC in its early developmental stage. The diagnostic sensitivity for a tiny HCC with a diameter less than 1.0 cm is usually as low as 10-33% for computed tomography (CT) and 29-43% for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Although MRI is the preferred imaging modality for detecting HCC, with its unparalleled spatial resolution for soft tissue, the commercially available contrast agent, such as Gd³⁺-DTPA, cannot accurately define HCC because of its short circulation lifetime and lack of tumor-targeting specificity. Endoglin (CD105), a type I membrane glycoprotein, is highly expressed both in HCC cells and in the endothelial cells of neovasculature, which are abundant at the tumor periphery. In this work, a novel single-stranded DNA oligonucleotide-based aptamer was screened by systematic evolution of ligands in an exponential enrichment assay and showed a high binding affinity ( K_D = 98 pmol/L) to endoglin. Conjugating the aptamers and imaging reporters on a G5 dendrimer created an HCC-targeting nanoprobe that allowed the successful visualization of orthotopic HCC xenografts with diameters as small as 1-4 mm. Significantly, the invasive tumor margin was clearly delineated, with a tumor to normal ratio of 2.7 by near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging and 2.1 by T₁-weighted MRI. This multimodal nanoprobe holds promise not only for noninvasively defining tiny HCC by preoperative MRI but also for guiding tumor excision via intraoperative NIR fluorescence imaging, which will probably gain benefit for the patient's therapeutic response and improve the survival rate.

Fluorine-18 labeling of an anti-HER2 VHH using a residualizing prosthetic group via a strain-promoted click reaction: Chemistry and preliminary evaluation

In a previous study, we evaluated a HER2-specific single domain antibody fragment (sdAb) 2Rs15d labeled with ¹⁸F via conjugation of a residualizing prosthetic agent that was synthesized by copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC). In order to potentially increase overall efficiency and decrease the time required for labeling, we now investigate the use of a strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC) between the 2Rs15d sdAb, which had been pre-derivatized with an azide-containing residualizing moiety, and an ¹⁸F-labeled aza-dibenzocyclooctyne derivative. The HER2-targeted sdAb 2Rs15d and a nonspecific sdAb R3B23 were pre-conjugated with a moiety containing both azide- and guanidine functionalities. The thus derivatized sdAbs were radiolabeled with ¹⁸F using an ¹⁸F-labeled aza-dibenzocyclooctyne derivative ([¹⁸F]F-ADIBO) via SPAAC, generating the desired conjugate ([¹⁸F]RL-II-sdAb). For comparison, unmodified 2Rs15d was labeled with N-succinimidyl 4-guanidinomethyl-3-[¹²⁵I]iodobenzoate ([¹²⁵I]SGMIB), the prototypical residualizing agent for radioiodination. Radiochemical purity (RCP), immunoreactive fraction (IRF), HER2-binding affinity and cellular uptake of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d were assessed in vitro. Paired label biodistribution of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d and [¹²⁵I]SGMIB-2Rs15d, and microPET/CT imaging of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d and the [¹⁸F]RL-II-R3B23 control sdAb were performed in nude mice bearing HER2-expressing SKOV-3 xenografts. A radiochemical yield of 23.9 ± 6.9% (n = 8) was achieved for the SPAAC reaction between [¹⁸F]F-ADIBO and azide-modified 2Rs15d and the RCP of the labeled sdAb was >95%. The affinity (K_d) and IRF for the binding of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d to HER2 were 5.6 ± 1.3 nM and 73.1 ± 22.5% (n = 3), respectively. The specific uptake of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d by HER2-expressing BT474M1 breast carcinoma cells in vitro was 14-17% of the input dose at 1, 2, and 4 h, slightly higher than seen for co-incubated [¹²⁵I]SGMIB-2Rs15d. The uptake of [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d in SKOV-3 xenografts at 1 h and 2 h p.i. were 5.54 ± 0.77% ID/g and 6.42 ± 1.70% ID/g, respectively, slightly higher than those for co-administered [¹²⁵I]SGMIB-2Rs15d (4.80 ± 0.78% ID/g and 4.78 ± 1.39% ID/g). MicroPET/CT imaging with [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d at 1-3 h p.i. clearly delineated SKOV-3 tumors while no significant accumulation of activity in tumor was seen for [¹⁸F]RL-II-R3B23. With the exception of kidneys, normal tissue levels for [¹⁸F]RL-II-2Rs15d were low and cleared rapidly. To our knowledge, this is the first time SPAAC method has been used to label an sdAb with ¹⁸F, especially with residualizing functionality.

In Vitro and in Vivo Evaluation of 11C-Labeled Azetidinecarboxylates for Imaging Monoacylglycerol Lipase by PET Imaging Studies

Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the principle enzyme for metabolizing endogenous cannabinoid ligand 2-arachidonoyglycerol (2-AG). Blockade of MAGL increases 2-AG levels, resulting in subsequent activation of the endocannabinoid system, and has emerged as a novel therapeutic strategy to treat drug addiction, inflammation, and neurodegenerative diseases. Herein we report a new series of MAGL inhibitors, which were radiolabeled by site-specific labeling technologies, including ¹¹C-carbonylation and spirocyclic iodonium ylide (SCIDY) radiofluorination. The lead compound [¹¹C]10 (MAGL-0519) demonstrated high specific binding and selectivity in vitro and in vivo. We also observed unexpected washout kinetics with these irreversible radiotracers, in which in vivo evidence for turnover of the covalent residue was unveiled between MAGL and azetidine carboxylates. This work may lead to new directions for drug discovery and PET tracer development based on azetidine carboxylate inhibitor scaffold.

Synthesis and biological applications of fluoro-modified nucleic acids

Owing to the unique physical properties of a fluorine atom, incorporating fluoro-modifications into nucleic acids offers striking biophysical and biochemical features, and thus significantly extends the breadth and depth of biological applications of nucleic acids. In this review, fluoro-modified nucleic acids that have been synthesized through either solid phase synthesis or the enzymatic approach are briefly summarised, followed by a section describing their biomedical applications in nucleic acid-based therapeutics, ¹⁸F PET imaging and mechanistic studies of DNA modifying enzymes. In the last part, the utility of ¹⁹F NMR and MRI for probing the structure, dynamics and molecular interactions of fluorinated nucleic acids is reviewed.

Bioapplications of Cell-SELEX-Generated Aptamers in Cancer Diagnostics, Therapeutics, Theranostics and Biomarker Discovery: A Comprehensive Review

Currently, functional single-stranded oligonucleotide probes, termed aptamers, generated by an iterative technology, Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX), are utilized to selectively target molecules or cells with high affinity. Aptamers hold considerable promise as multifunctional molecules or conjugates for challenging nanotechnologies or bioapplications now and in the future. In this review, we first describe recent endeavors to select aptamers towards live cancer cells via cell-SELEX. We then introduce several characteristic applications of selected aptamers, especially in imaging, drug delivery and therapy. In part, these advances have been made possible via synthesis of aptamer-based nanomaterials, which, by their sizes, shapes, and physicochemical properties, allow such aptamer-nanomaterial complexes to function as signal reporters or drug carriers. We also describe how these aptamer-based molecular tools contribute to cancer biomarker discovery through high-affinity recognition of membrane protein receptors.

Hypervalent aryliodine compounds as precursors for radiofluorination

Over the last 2 decades or so, hypervalent iodine compounds, such as diaryliodonium salts and aryliodonium ylides, have emerged as useful precursors for labeling homoarenes and heteroarenes with no-carrier-added cyclotron-produced [¹⁸ F]fluoride ion (t_1/2  = 109.8 min). They permit rapid and effective radiofluorination at electron-rich as well as electron-deficient aryl rings, and often with unrestricted choice of ring position. Consequently, hypervalent aryliodine compounds have found special utility as precursors to various small-molecule ¹⁸ F-labeling synthons and to many radiotracers for biomedical imaging with positron emission tomography. This review summarizes this advance in radiofluorination chemistry, with emphasis on precursor synthesis, radiofluorination mechanism, method scope, and method application.

Streamlined asymmetric α-difunctionalization of ynones

Ynones are a unique class of structural motifs that show remarkable chemical versatility. Chiral ynones, particularly those possessing an α-stereogenic center, are highly attractive templates for structural diversification. So far, only very limited examples have been reported for asymmetric α-functionalization of ynones. Asymmetric double α-functionalization of ynones remains elusive. Here we describe a streamlined strategy for asymmetric α-difunctionalization of ynones. We developed a gold-catalyzed multicomponent condensation reaction from a simple ynone, an amine, and an electrophilic alkynylating reagent to generate a 1,2-dialkynyl enamine, a key stable and isolable intermediate. This intermediate can undergo asymmetric fluorination catalyzed by a chiral phosphoric acid derivative. Chiral ynones with an α-quaternary carbon and containing a fluorine and an alkyne can be synthesized in high yield and high ee. The synthetic utility of this method is demonstrated by the synthesis of enantioenriched tri(hetero)arylmethyl fluorides.

Chiral ynones with an α-quaternary carbon are attractive synthetic building blocks for natural and pharmaceutical products. Here, the authors report an asymmetric α-difunctionalization of simple ynones, involving a gold-catalyzed step and yielding enantioenriched fluorinated quaternary stereocentres.

Recent Advances in 18F Radiochemistry: A Focus on B-18F, Si-18F, Al-18F, and C-18F Radiofluorination via Spirocyclic Iodonium Ylides

Straightforward radiosynthesis protocols for ¹⁸F-labeled radiopharmaceuticals are an indispensable but often overlooked prerequisite to successfully perform molecular imaging studies in vivo by PET. In recent years, thanks to the expansion of the ¹⁸F chemical toolbox, structurally diverse and novel clinically relevant radiopharmaceuticals have been synthesized with both high efficiency and ready implementation. This article provides an overview of recent ¹⁸F-labeling methodologies, specifically for B-¹⁸F, Si-¹⁸F, Al-¹⁸F, and iodine (III)-mediated radiofluorination via the spirocyclic iodonium ylide technology.

Nucleic Acid Aptamers: Emerging Applications in Medical Imaging, Nanotechnology, Neurosciences, and Drug Delivery

Recent progresses in organic chemistry and molecular biology have allowed the emergence of numerous new applications of nucleic acids that markedly deviate from their natural functions. Particularly, DNA and RNA molecules-coined aptamers-can be brought to bind to specific targets with high affinity and selectivity. While aptamers are mainly applied as biosensors, diagnostic agents, tools in proteomics and biotechnology, and as targeted therapeutics, these chemical antibodies slowly begin to be used in other fields. Herein, we review recent progress on the use of aptamers in the construction of smart DNA origami objects and MRI and PET imaging agents. We also describe advances in the use of aptamers in the field of neurosciences (with a particular emphasis on the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases) and as drug delivery systems. Lastly, the use of chemical modifications, modified nucleoside triphosphate particularly, to enhance the binding and stability of aptamers is highlighted.

18 F-Labeling of Sensitive Biomolecules for Positron Emission Tomography

Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging study of fluorine-18 labeled biomolecules is an emerging and rapidly growing area for preclinical and clinical research. The present review focuses on recent advances in radiochemical methods for incorporating fluorine-18 into biomolecules via "direct" or "indirect" bioconjugation. Recently developed prosthetic groups and pre-targeting strategies, as well as representative examples in 18 F-labeling of biomolecules in PET imaging research studies are highlighted.

A Facile Radiolabeling of [18F]FDPA via Spirocyclic Iodonium Ylides: Preliminary PET Imaging Studies in Preclinical Models of Neuroinflammation

A suitable TSPO PET ligand may visualize and quantify neuroinflammation in a living brain. Herein we report a ¹⁸F-ligand, [¹⁸F]2 ([¹⁸F]FDPA), is radiolabeled in high yield and high specific activity based on our spirocyclic iodonium ylide (SCIDY) strategy. [¹⁸F]2 demonstrated saturable specific binding to TSPO, substantially elevated brain uptake, and slow washout of bound PET signal in the preclinical models of brain neuroinflammation (cerebral ischemia and Alzheimer's disease).

Molecular Elucidation of Disease Biomarkers at the Interface of Chemistry and Biology

Disease-related biomarkers are objectively measurable molecular signatures of physiological status that can serve as disease indicators or drug targets in clinical diagnosis and therapy, thus acting as a tool in support of personalized medicine. For example, the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) biomarker is now widely used to screen patients for prostate cancer. However, few such biomarkers are currently available, and the process of biomarker identification and validation is prolonged and complicated by inefficient methods of discovery and few reliable analytical platforms. Therefore, in this Perspective, we look at the advanced chemistry of aptamer molecules and their significant role as molecular probes in biomarker studies. As a special class of functional nucleic acids evolved from an iterative technology termed Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX), these single-stranded oligonucleotides can recognize their respective targets with selectivity and affinity comparable to those of protein antibodies. Because of their fast turnaround time and exceptional chemical properties, aptamer probes can serve as novel molecular tools for biomarker investigations, particularly in assisting identification of new disease-related biomarkers. More importantly, aptamers are able to recognize biomarkers from complex biological environments such as blood serum and cell surfaces, which can provide direct evidence for further clinical applications. This Perspective highlights several major advancements of aptamer-based biomarker discovery strategies and their potential contribution to the practice of precision medicine.

Combinatorial Screening of DNA Aptamers for Molecular Imaging of HER2 in Cancer

HER2, a cell membrane protein overexpressed in many types of cancers, is correlated with poor diagnosis, suboptimal treatment outcome, and low survival rate. Multiple HER2-targeted drugs have been developed for the treatment of HER2-overexpressing tumor, which can in turn down-regulate HER2 expression. It is thus significant to profile HER2 expression for cancer prognosis, patient stratification, and monitoring therapy response. Aptamers, a class of single-stranded DNA/RNA (ssDNA/ssRNA) ligands, are promising for molecular biomarker imaging. Aptamers typically have strong binding affinity, high selectivity, batch-to-batch reproducibility, and low toxicity, and systemically injected aptamers often have high tumor-to-background ratio within a short time. However, current aptamers have been mostly screened in vitro, and these aptamers may lose binding ability in vivo due to conformational change under physiological environments. Here, a DNA library was combinatorially screened in vitro and in vivo, to select HER2-targeting DNA aptamers, termed Heraptamers, and labeled with ¹⁸F for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of HER2 in ovarian cancer. Specifically, using systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), Heraptamer candidates were first selected and validated in vitro using HER2 extracellular domain (ECD) and HER2-positive SKOV3 cancer cells; then, aptamer candidates were modified with alkyne, radiolabeled with ¹⁸F using azide-functionalized precursors by click chemistry, and screened in SKOV3-tumor-bearing mice using PET. Two aptamers, Heraptamer1 and Heraptamer2, reached high tumor uptake ratios within as short as 1 h. At 1.5 h post injection, the tumor uptake ratio of these two aptamers was up to 0.5%ID/g (injection dose/gram tissue), with tumor-to-muscle ratio of 4.55 ± 1.63 in SKOV3 tumor. In contrast, these aptamers have low uptake ratios in control MDA-MB-231 tumors. These preclinical studies showed that Heraptamers are promising for specific HER2 imaging.

Fluorine-18-Labeled Antagonist for PET Imaging of Kappa Opioid Receptors

Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) antagonists are potential drug candidates for diseases such as treatment-refractory depression, anxiety, and addictive disorders. PET imaging radiotracers for KOR can be used in occupancy study to facilitate drug development, and to investigate the roles of KOR in health and diseases. We have previously developed two ¹¹C-labeled antagonist radiotracers with high affinity and selectivity toward KOR. What is limiting their wide applications is the short half-life of ¹¹C. Herein, we report the synthesis of a first ¹⁸F-labeled KOR antagonist radiotracer and the initial PET imaging study in a nonhuman primate.

Fluorine-18 labelled building blocks for PET tracer synthesis

This review presents a comprehensive overview of the synthesis and application of fluorine-18 labelled building blocks since 2010.

18F-Labelling of electron rich iodonium ylides: application to the radiosynthesis of potential 5-HT2A receptor PET ligands

Nucleophilic ¹⁸F-labelling of electron aromatic systems.