Polymer electrets and their applications

Electret Production and Applications with Special Regard to Health Physics Dosimetry: A Review

ABSTRACT

An electret detector is a piece of dielectric material film charged or polarized by a specific charging method to induce a quasi-permanent electric field. Electret films perform unique characteristics for production and applications in many areas of science and technology, especially in health physics dosimetry. A charged electret detector, when placed in an ionized environment, collects negative or positive ions depending on its original charging state, which reduces its original charge. The number of charges reduced in the ionized field is usually proportional to the absorbed radiation dose. In this paper, the state-of-the-art information on the type of electrets, production methods, some applications in particular in health physics dosimetry, and relevant concepts are reviewed.

Ketonized Carbonitride Assembled Face Mask with Long-Term Light Triggered Antimicrobial Ability for Bioprotective Applications

The worldwide transmission of infectious respiratory pathogens has caused innumerable deaths and suffering, while wearing a face mask is still the most effective way to terminate the respiratory infections spread. However, the frequent mask replacement as a result of the lack of pathogen sterilization ability not only increases the cross-contamination risk but also, even worse, produces a large amount of medical waste. In this work, we report on a ketonized carbonitride functionalized bioprotective face mask with pathogen sterilization activity that can effectively produce biocidal singlet oxygen triggered by light irradiation. Ketonized carbonitride loading on the outer layer of the mask is found to be capable of generating singlet oxygen, enabling the mask with antibacterial ability. Thanks to its high pathogen inactivation activity, the as-prepared mask exhibits long-term light triggered health protection performance, which, in return, reduces medical waste production as a result of the decreased mask replacement frequency. The synthesis of a fascinating bioprotective mask provides a new viewpoint into the development of personal bioprotective devices for health protection.

Determination of Surface Charge Density and Charge Mapping of CYTOP Film in Air using Electrostatic Force Microscopy

Cyclic transparent optical polymer (CYTOP), a fluoropolymer, finds a plethora of applications in microelectronic devices for sustainable energy harvesting and memory devices. By and large, these devices demand high voltage breakdown, a high dielectric constant, transparency, charge storage, and retention capabilities. Despite many efforts, comprehensive investigation of the charge distribution, retention, and discharge studies conducted on the CYTOP film at the micro-scale remains elusive. Here, we present direct quantification and mapping of surface charge on the CYTOP surface at room temperature using two different modes of advanced surface probe microscopy i.e., Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) and electrostatic force microscopy (EFM). We estimated that the surface charge densities of the CYTOP film using EFM are 1.4 and 3.3 μC/cm2 for the injection of positive and negative charges, respectively. Furthermore, we determined the charge retention time for both injected positive and negative charges. We found that the retention capacity of the negative charges on the CYTOP film is much higher as compared to the positive charges. Moreover, it is also observed that injected negative charges are strongly localized on the CYTOP surface compared to the positive counterpart. Additionally, we demonstrated that charge writing is possible on the CYTOP surface using the AFM conductive tip. These results may find potential applications in energy harvesting, sensing, memory devices, security, and surveillance.

Advances in Piezoelectret Materials-Based Bidirectional Haptic Communication Devices

Bidirectional haptic communication devices accelerate the revolution of virtual/augmented reality and flexible/wearable electronics. As an emerging kind of flexible piezoelectric materials, piezoelectret materials can effortlessly convert mechanical force into electrical signals and respond to electrical fields in a deformation manner, exhibiting enormous potential in the construction of bidirectional haptic communication devices. Existing reviews on piezoelectret materials primarily focus on flexible energy harvesters and sensors, and the recent development of piezoelectret-based bidirectional haptic communication devices has not been comprehensively reviewed. Herein, a comprehensive overview of the materials construction, along with the recent advances in bidirectional haptic communication devices, is provided. First, the development timeline, key characteristics, and various fabrication methods of piezoelectret materials are introduced. Subsequently, following the underlying mechanisms of bidirectional electromechanical signal conversion of piezoelectret, strategies to improve the d33 coefficients of materials are proposed. The principles of haptic perception and feedback are also highlighted, and representative works and progress in this area are summarized. Finally, the challenges and opportunities associated with improving the overall practicability of piezoelectret materials-based bidirectional haptic communication devices are discussed.

Bioelectret Materials and Their Bioelectric Effects for Tissue Repair: A Review

Biophysical and clinical medical studies have confirmed that biological tissue lesions and trauma are related to the damage of an intrinsic electret (i.e., endogenous electric field), such as wound healing, embryonic development, the occurrence of various diseases, immune regulation, tissue regeneration, and cancer metastasis. As exogenous electrical signals, such as conductivity, piezoelectricity, ferroelectricity, and pyroelectricity, bioelectroactives can regulate the endogenous electric field, thus controlling the function of cells and promoting the repair and regeneration of tissues. Materials, once polarized, can harness their inherent polarized static electric fields to generate an electric field through direct stimulation or indirect interactions facilitated by physical signals, such as friction, ultrasound, or mechanical stimulation. The interaction with the biological microenvironment allows for the regulation and compensation of polarized electric signals in damaged tissue microenvironments, leading to tissue regeneration and repair. The technique shows great promise for applications in the field of tissue regeneration. In this paper, the generation and change of the endogenous electric field and the regulation of exogenous electroactive substances are expounded, and the latest research progress of the electret and its biological effects in the field of tissue repair include bone repair, nerve repair, drug penetration promotion, wound healing, etc. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of electret materials in tissue repair were summarized. Exploring the research and development of new polarized materials and the mechanism of regulating endogenous electric field changes may provide new insights and innovative methods for tissue repair and disease treatment in biological applications.

Facile preparation and charge retention mechanism of polymer-based deformable electret

Electret materials with high deformability largely extend their applications such as wearable devices and actuators. Meanwhile, the deformability of currently reported electrets is somewhat limited except for a liquid electret that requires synthetic procedures with relatively low product yield. Here, we report a polymer-based electret with infinite deformability, which is simply prepared by corona-discharging on the mixture of two commercially available polymers, i.e., polybutenes (PB) as a liquid polyolefin and polypropylene-graft-maleic anhydride (MPP) as a solute. The charge retention mechanism of the PB/MPP electret was both experimentally and computationally elucidated from the views of molecular and nanoscale structures, and transport properties. Contrary to the ease of the preparation, the charge retention mechanism was complicated. The results of quantum chemical calculations and X-ray scattering indicated that the succinic anhydride polar moieties in MPP act as a charge trap site while how they distribute in the non-polar matrix also matters. Transport property measurements revealed the strong connection between complex viscosity and the relaxation time of the charge decay of the PB/MPP electret. Finally, we fabricated a simple piezoelectric device consisting of the PB/MPP electret. It was demonstrated that the piezoelectric performance of the PB/MPP electret is comparable to that of a conventional solid electret.

Enhancing electrostatic charge stability of corona charged Teflon electret films for radiation dosimetry by optimizing metal electrode backing material

Metal electrode backing (MEB) material was found to have a significant role on the electrostatic surface charge stability of Teflon polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) electret films. PTFE films of different thicknesses were positively and negatively charged by using our home-made modified point-to-plane corona poling rotating systems. Different MEB materials and thicknesses; aluminum, copper, stainless steel, zinc, silver, and gold were applied. The electrostatic surface charge stability of charged PTFE films was monitored for 200 h at similar storage conditions. Proper MEB material enhances the electrostatic surface charge stability of electret films due to the work function of the metal electrodes and high potential barrier formation at the interface of MEB material and electret film. The studies show that thinner MEB materials provide higher electrostatic surface charge stability in PTFE films. Therefore, thinner MEB material with higher work function is an effective compromise for producing electret films with higher electrostatic surface charge stability. The findings are extremely important for the applications of highly stable electret films for different applications in particular for radiation dosimetry with special regards to radon monitoring.

How Permanent Are the Permanent Macrodipoles of Anthranilamide Bioinspired Molecular Electrets?

Dipoles are ubiquitous, and their impacts on materials and interfaces affect many aspects of daily life. Despite their importance, dipoles remain underutilized, often because of insufficient knowledge about the structures producing them. As electrostatic analogues of magnets, electrets possess ordered electric dipoles. Here, we characterize the structural dynamics of bioinspired electret oligomers based on anthranilamide motifs. We report dynamics simulations, employing a force field that allows dynamic polarization, in a variety of solvents. The results show a linear increase in macrodipoles with oligomer length that strongly depends on solvent polarity and hydrogen-bonding (HB) propensity, as well as on the anthranilamide side chains. An increase in solvent polarity increases the dipole moments of the electret structures while decreasing the dipole effects on the moieties outside the solvation cavities. The former is due to enhancement of the Onsager reaction field and the latter to screening of the dipole-generated fields. Solvent dynamics hugely contributes to the fluctuations and magnitude of the electret dipoles. HB with the solvent weakens electret macrodipoles without breaking the intramolecular HB that maintains their extended conformation. This study provides design principles for developing a new class of organic materials with controllable electronic properties. An animated version of the TOC graphic showing a sequence of the MD trajectories of short and long molecular electrets in three solvents with different polarities is available in the HTML version of this paper.

Electret Modulation Strategy to Enhance the Photosensitivity Performance of Two-Dimensional Molybdenum Sulfide

Due to the limited light absorption efficiency of atomic thickness layers and the existence of quenching effects, photodetectors solely made of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have exhibited an unsatisfactory detection performance. In this article, electret/TMD hybridized devices were proposed by vertically coupling a MoS2 channel and the PTFE film, which reveals an optimized photodetection behavior. Negative charges were generated in the PTFE layer through the corona charging method, akin to applying a negative bias on the MoS2 channel in lieu of a traditional voltage-driven back gate. Under a charging voltage of -6 kV, PTFE/MoS2 devices reveal improved photodetection performance (Rhybrid = 67.95A/W versus Ronly = 3.37 A/W, at 470 nm, 1.20 mW cm-2) and faster recovery speed (τd(hybrid) = 2000 ms versus τd(only) = 2900 ms) compared to those bare MoS2 counterparts. The optimal detection performance (2 orders of magnitude) was obtained when the charging voltage was -2 kV, limited by the minimum of the carrier density in MoS2 channels. This study provides an alternative strategy to optimize optoelectronic devices based on the 2D components through non-voltage-driven gating.

A Flexible Self-Powered Noncontact Sensor with an Ultrawide Sensing Range for Human-Machine Interactions in Harsh Environments

Noncontact human-machine interactions (HMIs) provide a hygienic and intelligent approach to communicate between humans and machines. However, current noncontact HMIs are generally hampered by the interaction distance, and they lack the adaptability to environmental interference such as high humidity conditions. Here, we explore a self-powered electret-based noncontact sensor (ENS) with moisture-resisting ability and ultrawide sensing range exceeding 2.5 m. A megascopic air-bubble structure is designed to enhance charge-storage stability and charge-recovery ability of the ENS based on the heterocharge-synergy effect in electrets. Besides, multilayer electret films are introduced to strengthen the electric field by utilizing the electrostatic field superposition effect. Thanks to the above improved performances of the ENS, we demonstrate various noncontact HMI applications in harsh environments, including noncontact appliances, a moving trajectory and accidental fall tracking system, and a real-time machine learning-assisted gesture recognition system with accuracy as high as 99.21%. This research expands the way for noncontact sensor design and may further broaden applications in noncontact HMIs.

Leveraging Ferroelectret Nanogenerators for Acoustic Applications

Ferroelectret nanogenerator (FENG), renowned for its remarkable electromechanical conversion efficiency and low Young's modulus, has gained significant attention in various acoustic applications. The increasing interest is attributed to the crucial role acoustic devices play in our daily lives. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the advancements made in using FENG for acoustic applications. It elaborates on the operational mechanism of FENG in acoustics, with a special focus on comparing the influence of different fabrication materials and techniques on its properties. This review categorizes acoustic applications of FENG into three primary areas: acoustic sensing, acoustic actuation, and acoustic energy harvesting. The detailed descriptions of FENG's implementations in these areas are provided, and potential directions and challenges for further development are outlined. By demonstrating the wide range of potential applications for FENG, it is shown that FENG can be adapted to meet different individual needs.

3D-Printed Piezoelectret Based on Foamed Polylactic Acid for Energy-Harvesting and Sensing Applications

Poly(lactic) acid (PLA) is a bio-compatible polymer widely used in additive manufacturing, and in the form of cellular foam it shows excellent mechanical and piezoelectric properties. This type of structure can be easily 3D-printed by Fusion Deposition Modelling (FDM) with commercially available composite filaments. In this work, we present mechanical and electrical investigations on 3D-printed low-cost and eco-friendly foamed PLA. The cellular microstructure and the foaming degree were tuned by varying extrusion temperature and flowrate. The maximum surface potential and charge stability of disk samples were found in correspondence of extrusion temperature between 230 and 240 °C with a flowrate of 53-44% when charging on a heated bed at 85 °C. The cells' morphology and correlated mechanical properties were analyzed and the measured piezoelectric d33 coefficient was found to be 212 pC/N. These findings show the importance of printing parameters and thermal treatment during the charging process in order to obtain the highest charge storage, stability and material flexibility. These results suggest that 3D-printed cellular PLA is a promising sustainable material for sensing and energy-harvesting applications.

Ferroelectret nanogenerators for the development of bioengineering systems

Bioengineering devices and systems will become a practical and versatile technology in society when sustainability issues, primarily pertaining to their efficiency, sustainability, and human-machine interaction, are fully addressed. It has become evident that technological paths should not rely on a single operation mechanism but instead on holistic methodologies that integrate different phenomena and approaches with complementary advantages. As an intriguing invention, the ferroelectret nanogenerator (FENG) has emerged with promising potential in various fields of bioengineering. Utilizing the changes in the engineered macro-scale electric dipoles to create displacement current (and vice versa), FENGs have been demonstrated to be a compelling strategy for bidirectional conversion of energy between the electrical and mechanical domains. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of the latest advancements in integrating FENGs in bioengineering systems, focusing on the applications with the most potential and the underlying current constraints.

Wireless electrochemical actuation of soft materials towards chiral stimuli

Different areas of modern chemistry, require wireless systems able to transfer chirality from the molecular to the macroscopic event. The ability to recognize the enantiomers of a chiral analyte is highly desired, since in the majority of cases such molecules present different physico-chemical properties that could lead, eventually, to dangerous or harmful interactions with the environment or the human body. From an electrochemical point of view, enantiomers have the same electrochemical behavior except when they interact in a chiral environment. In this Feature Article, different approaches for the electrochemical recognition of chiral information based on the actuation of conducting polymers are described. Such a dynamic behavior of π-conjugated materials is based on an electrochemically induced shrinking/swelling transition of the polymeric matrix. Since all the systems, described so far in the literature, are achiral and require a direct connection to a power supply, new strategies will be presented in the manuscript, concerning the implementation of chirality in electrochemical actuators and their use in a wireless manner through bipolar electrochemistry. Herein, the synergy between the wireless unconventional actuation and the outstanding enantiorecognition of inherent chiral oligomers is presented as an easy and straightforward read out of chiral information in solution. This approach presents different advantages in comparison to classic electrochemical systems such as its wireless nature and the possible real-time data acquisition.

Washable and Breathable Electret Sensors Based on a Hydro-Charging Technique for Smart Textiles

Flexible electromechanical sensors based on electret materials have shown great application potential in wearable electronics. However, achieving great breathability yet maintaining good washability is still a challenge for traditional electret sensors. Herein, we report a washable and breathable electret sensor based on a hydro-charging technique, namely, hydro-charged electret sensor (HCES). The melt-blown polypropylene (MBPP) electret fabric can be charged while washing with water. The surface potential of MBPP electret fabric can be improved by optimizing the type of water, water pressure, water temperature, drying temperature, drying time, ambient air pressure, and ambient relative humidity. It is proposed that the single fiber has charges of different polarities on the upper and lower surfaces due to contact electrification with water, thereby forming electric dipoles between fibers, which can lead to better surface potential stability than the traditional corona-charging method. The HCES can achieve a high air permeability of ∼215 mm/s and sensitivity up to ∼0.21 V/Pa, with output voltage remaining stable after over 36,000 working cycles and multiple times of water washing. As a demonstration example, the HCES is integrated into a chest strap to monitor human respiration conditions.

A Stretchable Expanded Polytetrafluorethylene-Silicone Elastomer Composite Electret for Wearable Sensor

Soaring developments in wearable electronics raise an urgent need for stretchable electrets. However, achieving soft electrets simultaneously possessing excellent stretchability, longevity, and high charge density is still challenging. Herein, a facile approach is proposed to prepare an all-polymer hybrid composite electret based on the coupling of elastomer and ePTFE membrane. The composite electrets are fabricated via a facile casting and thermal curing process. The obtained soft composite electrets exhibit constantly high surface potential (-0.38 kV) over a long time (30 days), large strain (450%), low hysteresis, and excellent durability (15,000 cycles). To demonstrate the applications, the stretchable electret is utilized to assemble a self-powered flexible sensor based on the electrostatic induction effect for the monitoring of human activities. Additionally, output signals in the pressure mode almost two orders of magnitude larger than those in the strain mode are observed and the sensing mechanism in each mode is investigated.

Understanding the Role of Soft X-ray in Charging Solid-Film and Cellular Electrets

Solid-film electrets and cellular electrets are defined as promising insulating dielectric materials containing permanent electrostatic and polarizations. High-performance charging methods are critical for electret transducers. Unlike dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) charging, the soft X-ray charging method, with its strong penetration ability, has been widely used in electrets after packaging and has even been embedded in high-aspect-ratio structures (HARSs). However, the related charging model and the charging effect of the soft X-ray irradiation remain unclear. In this study, the charge carrier migration theory and the one-dimensional electrostatic model were employed to build the soft X-ray charging models. The influence of soft X-ray irradiation under deferent poling voltages was investigated theoretically and experimentally. The conducted space charge measurement based on a pulsed electro-acoustic (PEA) system with a soft X-ray generator revealed that soft X-ray charging can offer higher surface charge densities and piezoelectricity to cellular electrets under the critical poling voltage lower than twice the breakdown voltage.

Electroactive Polymer-Based Composites for Artificial Muscle-like Actuators: A Review

Unlike traditional actuators, such as piezoelectric ceramic or metallic actuators, polymer actuators are currently attracting more interest in biomedicine due to their unique properties, such as light weight, easy processing, biodegradability, fast response, large active strains, and good mechanical properties. They can be actuated under external stimuli, such as chemical (pH changes), electric, humidity, light, temperature, and magnetic field. Electroactive polymers (EAPs), called ‘artificial muscles’, can be activated by an electric stimulus, and fixed into a temporary shape. Restoring their permanent shape after the release of an electrical field, electroactive polymer is considered the most attractive actuator type because of its high suitability for prosthetics and soft robotics applications. However, robust control, modeling non-linear behavior, and scalable fabrication are considered the most critical challenges for applying the soft robotic systems in real conditions. Researchers from around the world investigate the scientific and engineering foundations of polymer actuators, especially the principles of their work, for the purpose of a better control of their capability and durability. The activation method of actuators and the realization of required mechanical properties are the main restrictions on using actuators in real applications. The latest highlights, operating principles, perspectives, and challenges of electroactive materials (EAPs) such as dielectric EAPs, ferroelectric polymers, electrostrictive graft elastomers, liquid crystal elastomers, ionic gels, and ionic polymer–metal composites are reviewed in this article.

Masks for COVID-19

Sustainable solutions on fabricating and using a face mask to block the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread during this coronavirus pandemic of 2019 (COVID-19) are required as society is directed by the World Health Organization (WHO) toward wearing it, resulting in an increasingly huge demand with over 4 000 000 000 masks used per day globally. Herein, various new mask technologies and advanced materials are reviewed to deal with critical shortages, cross-infection, and secondary transmission risk of masks. A number of countries have used cloth masks and 3D-printed masks as substitutes, whose filtration efficiencies can be improved by using nanofibers or mixing other polymers into them. Since 2020, researchers continue to improve the performance of masks by adding various functionalities, for example using metal nanoparticles and herbal extracts to inactivate pathogens, using graphene to make masks photothermal and superhydrophobic, and using triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) to prolong mask lifetime. The recent advances in material technology have led to the development of antimicrobial coatings, which are introduced in this review. When incorporated into masks, these advanced materials and technologies can aid in the prevention of secondary transmission of the virus.