Interprofessional education in anatomy: Learning together in medical and nursing training

The use of ultrasonography in education for undergraduate nursing students: A literature review

AIM

The incorporation of ultrasonography into nursing practice is becoming more common, but how ultrasonography is used or applied in nursing student education is still unclear. This study aimed to review and synthesize relevant literature on the use of ultrasonography in education for undergraduate nursing students.

METHODS

An electronic literature search was conducted in June 2022 (updated in June 2023) using MEDLINE, CINAHL, Scopus, and Ichushi-Web databases. Two researchers independently screened/assessed the eligibility of the studies, synthesized extracted data using a narrative synthesis (due to anticipated heterogeneity across studies), and evaluated the methodological quality of quantitative studies using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument.

RESULTS

Thirteen peer-reviewed articles were included in the review. All of the studies were conducted in high-income countries, and the majority of them employed an uncontrolled single-group design. Ultrasonography was used mainly for visualizing the vascular system to improve students' puncture skills, but it was also used with various other applications. The included studies were predominantly of moderate quality and heterogeneous, but all of them reported at least some benefits in nursing student education, such as enhancing knowledge and understanding of subcutaneous anatomical structures, and improving confidence in and/or skills of venipuncture and other visualization/assessment methods.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides a broad perspective and highlights the potential use of ultrasonography in education for undergraduate nursing students. Further research is needed to develop standardized teaching methods/curriculum and competency assessments in order to ensure minimum competency standards for students and to improve clinical outcomes for patients.

Interprofessional education for healthcare professionals. A BEME realist review of what works, why, for whom and in what circumstances in undergraduate health sciences education: BEME Guide No. 83

AIM

To provide an evidence-informed program theory (PT) for Interprofessional Education (IPE) that adds to the knowledge base of how IPE in undergraduate health sciences education works.

METHODS

We undertook a realist review of the literature and synthesis of the evidence combined with stakeholder experience. Our initial program theory (IPT), built around development, delivery and evaluation of IPE interventions, was tested and refined following an in-depth search of the literature and consultation with stakeholders. The literature (2010-2022) was selected based on the realist criteria of relevance and rigor, as well as on conceptual richness of the studies.

RESULTS

Our PT is built upon 124 CMOs (Context of IPE interventions, Mechanisms that fired within that context, and IPE Outcomes), from 58 studies. Our PT comprises an array of elements found in the Context, including traits and behavioral displays of students and facilitators, and discusses four Mechanisms (feeling responsible, feeling enthusiastic/excited, feeling safe to take risks, and feeling ready), which are likely to lead to outcomes related to the Interprofessional Education Collaborative (sub)competencies.

DISCUSSION

Results were linked to learning theories to further build our understanding. The PT can serve as a guide for the development, delivery, and evaluation of IPE interventions.

A single institution, cross-sectional study on medical student preferences for collaborators in interprofessional education

BACKGROUND

While the importance of interprofessional education in medical training has been well-established, no specific framework has been used uniformly or shown to be most effective in the creation of interprofessional education (IPE) sessions. Further, prior studies have demonstrated that students have preferences for the design of these experiences. In this study, we sought to understand medical student preference for interprofessional teammates and motivations for this choice.

METHODS

In this single-institution, cross-sectional analysis of the Duke IPE Clinic, participating students from September 2019-March 2020 completed a voluntary electronic survey that queried preferences for which health professions students (Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT), Accelerated Bachelor of Science in Nursing (ABSN), Nurse Practitioner (NP), Pharmacy, and Physician's Associate (PA)) they would want to work with, and the motivating reason. Preferences and reasons were compared between first-year medical students (MS1s) and third- and fourth-year medical students (MS3s/MS4s).

RESULTS

In total, 132 students participated. We found that MS1s most preferred interprofessional teammates with a more similar area of study (PA, NP), whereas MS3s/MS4s most preferred classmates with a less similar area of study (pharmacy, DPT, ABSN). MS1 students frequently selected their first-choice preference because the profession seemed most similar, while MS3/MS4 students often selected their first-choice preference because the profession seemed most different.

CONCLUSIONS

Medical students earlier in training have more interest in working with professions they view as similar whereas senior students prefer to work with professions they view as more different. This information is important for designing educational IPE opportunities.

A new dimension in medical education: Virtual reality in anatomy during COVID-19 pandemic

Virtual reality technology has been increasingly used in the field of anatomy education, particularly in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Virtual reality in anatomy (VRA) allows the creation of immersive, three-dimensional environments or experiences that can interact in a seemingly real or physical way. A comprehensive search of electronic databases was conducted to identify relevant studies. The search included studies published between 2020 and June 2023. The use of VRA education has been shown to be effective in improving students' understanding and retention of knowledge, as well as developing practical skills such as surgical techniques. VRA can allow students to visualize and interact with complex structures and systems in a way that is not possible with traditional methods. It can also provide a safe and ethical alternative to cadavers, which may be in short supply or have access restrictions. Additionally, VRA can be used to create customized learning experiences, allowing students to focus on specific areas of anatomy or to repeat certain exercises as needed. However, there are also limitations to the use of VRA education, including cost and the need for specialized equipment and training, as well as concerns about the realism and accuracy of VRA models. To fully utilize the potential of VRA education, it is important for educators to carefully consider the appropriate use of VR and to continuously evaluate its effectiveness. It is important for educators to carefully consider the appropriate use of VRA and to continuously evaluate its effectiveness to fully utilize its potential.

Future physicians' behavioral intentions towards collaborative practice - a qualitative study on polish final-year medical students guided by the theory of planned behavior

BACKGROUND

Interprofessional collaboration constitutes a vital part of modern patient care, and many of its benefits for patients, medical staff, and the healthcare system have been described. However, little is known about factors influencing medical students' intentions to work in a collaborative practice after graduation. Therefore, with the theory of planned behavior by Ajzen as a framework, this study aimed to evaluate their intentions and identify factors that influence their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

METHODS

For this purpose, eighteen semi-structured interviews were conducted with medical students following a thematic guide developed according to the theory. They were thematically analyzed by two independent researchers.

RESULTS

The results showed that their attitudes contained positive (better patient care, comfort and safety of work, learning and development opportunities) and negative examples like the fear of conflicts, losing authority and mistreatment. Sources of social pressure regarding the behavior (subjective norms) involved their peers, other physicians, representatives of other medical professions, patients, and managing bodies. Finally, perceived behavioral control included limited occasions for contacts and interprofessional learning during the studies, existing stereotypes and prejudices, legal regulations and systemic solutions, organizational aspects, and existing relations at the ward.

CONCLUSIONS

Analysis showed that Polish medical students generally seem to hold positive views on interprofessional collaboration and feel positive social pressure to get involved in interprofessional teams. However, factors listed in perceived behavioral control may act as barriers in the process.

Effect of interprofessional education on cadaver dissection seminar

In 2010, WHO published a "Framework for action on interprofessional education and collaborative practice." Interprofessional education (IPE) is now being conducted in various ways. We have been holding cadaver dissection seminars to provide opportunities for medical students, nursing students, and nurse practitioner (NP) students to learn together. In this study, we investigated the effect of learning about IPE in cadaver dissection seminars. The seminars were held for 5 days each in 2021 and 2022 (the number of days of participation was arbitrary). In the seminars, teams of 3-5 participants with the same theme collaborated to dissect a single donated cadaver. Teams were made up of participants with different departments: 29 medical students, 12 NP students, and 20 nursing students participated in the seminar, and participants were surveyed before and after the seminars. The Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS) scores before and after the dissection seminar increased significantly overall. The scores of medical and nursing students increased significantly, but those of NP students did not significantly change. In terms of the number of days of participation, a significant increase in scores was found for participants who participated for ≥ 2 days. Overall, a significant positive correlation was found between intrinsic motivation to learn and RIPLS scores. For medical students, a significant negative correlation was noted between extrinsic motivation and RIPLS scores. Cadaver dissection seminars conducted by medical, nursing, and NP students demonstrated IPE learning effect on medical students and undergraduate nursing students.

Analysis of a multifaceted interactive pedagogy program in an upper limb anatomy course: A time series study

Many new methods have contributed to the learning of anatomy, including several interactive methods, increasing the effectiveness of educational programs. The effectiveness of an educational program involving several interactive learning methods such as problem-based learning and reciprocal peer teaching was researched in this study. A quasi-experimental before-after study on three consecutive groups of second-year students at the Grenoble School of Medicine was conducted. The lectures were replaced by an educational program based on the problem-based learning method and reciprocal peer teaching. The first session was dedicated to reading clinical cases illustrating the medical concept, so that the learning objectives for the second session could be set. Then, after viewing digital courses, the second session was dedicated to a synthetic presentation by the students themselves, followed by an interactive summary with the teacher. The analysis of 630 students showed a significant increase in the theory test results for those who took part in the intervention: 9.71 versus 9.19 (β = 0.57, P = 0.036). Moreover, satisfaction was high after the intervention (mean = 4.5/5), and when comparing the two pedagogical approaches the students showed a clear preference for the program implemented with the concepts highlighted such as interactivity, in-depth work, group work, and autonomy. A multifaceted interactive pedagogy program could have a significant impact on the results of the theoretical concepts presented and on satisfaction as well as increased investment by students in learning anatomy.

Development and implementation of a comprehensive ultrasound curriculum for medical students: The Bonn internship point-of-care-ultrasound curriculum (BI-POCUS)

Background

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) is rapidly gaining ground within different areas of applications. Despite the high and increasing relevance of ultrasound, the availability of structured training programs in medical schools is still limited. Therefore, many doctors keep acquiring all their ultrasound skills throughout their postgraduate training. As a result, new residents lack theoretical and practical ultrasound abilities that are critical in everyday clinical practice. In order to improve this, we created and implemented a complete ultrasound curriculum for all medical students throughout their internship year that focuses on hands-on abilities in ultrasound imaging.

Methods

We used Kern's six-step model of curricular development comprising (1) problem identification and general needs assessment, (2) needs assessment of the targeted learners, (3) goals and objectives, (4) educational strategies, (5) implementation, and (6) evaluation and feedback by board-certified ultrasound experts. A two rounds Delphi process with multilevel, self-completed questionnaires and individual using a 9-point Likert scale and free text comments was used to identify learning objectives and reach agreement on the content of the curriculum.

Results

The curriculum developed is aimed at students with no or little experience in their internship year and will be taught as part of their weekly-based internship training courses consisting of 2 hours of theory and 3 hours of practical training. The training will be conducted within a modular framework focusing on the key requirements of POCUS with increasing levels of complexity in accordance with the recommendations of the German Society for Ultrasound in Medicine (DEGUM), the European Federation of Societies for ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (EFSUMB) and the World Federation for ultrasound in Medicine and Biology (WFUMB). A longitudinal e-learning system will be implemented in addition to the practical and theoretical teaching units to track and examine the progress of the students.

Conclusion

Early integration of ultrasound training into medical education as part of a structured and standardized broad ultrasound curriculum enables medical students to acquire basic skills and apply them practically. Fundamental scanning skills are acquired by hands-on exercises in small, supervised groups as part of BI-POCUS. BI-POCUS therefore provides an excellent opportunity to improve the clinical skills of future physicians. More research is needed to analyze the learning outcomes for medical students and the improvement of the patient's outcome by establishing such an ultrasound curriculum.

Anatomy in Practice: How Do Equine and Production Animal Veterinarians Apply Anatomy in Primary Care Settings?

To successfully prepare veterinary undergraduates for the workplace, it is critical that anatomy educators consider the context in which developing knowledge and skills will be applied. This study aimed to establish how farm animal and equine general practitioners use anatomy and related skills within their daily work. Qualitative ethnographic data in the form of observations and semi-structured interviews were collected from 12 veterinarians working in equine or farm animal first-opinion practice. Data underwent thematic analysis using a grounded theory approach. The five themes identified were relevant to both equine and farm animal veterinarians and represented the breadth and complexity of anatomy, its importance for professional and practical competence, as well as the requirement for continuous learning. The centrality and broad and multifaceted nature of anatomy was found to challenge equine and farm animal veterinarians, highlighting that essential anatomy knowledge and related skills are vital for their professional and practical competence. This aligns with the previously described experiences of companion animal clinicians. In equine practice, the complexity of anatomical knowledge required was particularly high, especially in relation to diagnostic imaging and assessing normal variation. This resulted in greater importance being placed on formal and informal professional development opportunities. For farm animal clinicians, anatomy application in the context of necropsy and euthanasia was particularly noted. Our findings allow anatomy educators to design appropriate and effective learning opportunities to ensure that veterinary graduates are equipped with the skills, knowledge, and resources required to succeed in first-opinion veterinary practice.

Knowledge and Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Among Pharmacy and Clinical Nutrition Students at King Saud University

Background

Interprofessional education (IPE) in healthcare specialties is important to optimize patient outcomes and shape professional image toward teamwork and collaboration among healthcare professionals. The aim of this study is to assess the impact of IPE on pharmacy and clinical nutrition students’ knowledge in food–drug interactions and readiness for interprofessional learning.

Methods

This pre-post study was conducted at King Saud University between February and March 2020. We held an interprofessional workshop for pharmacy and clinical nutrition students. After we introduced the faculty members who would deliver the food–drug interactions session, the students took a seven-question quiz (total score = 7) to assess their knowledge about the basic concept of food–drug interactions before the session. After that, a 45-minute lecture was provided by a clinical pharmacy faculty member. Students from both disciplines worked on three clinical scenarios. After completing the assigned scenarios, the students retook the quiz to assess their knowledge after the workshop. In addition, student readiness was assessed using the 19-item Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS).

Results

A total of 48 students were included in this study. Overall, students’ mean scores in both colleges significantly increased after the workshop (p < 0.01). The mean RIPLS total scores (SD) for pharmacy students and clinical nutrition students were 80.6 (7.48) and 81.26 (6.96), respectively, out of a maximum possible score of 95. These scores indicated positive attitudes toward interprofessional learning in both groups.

Conclusion

Pharmacy and clinical nutrition students’ knowledge regarding food–drug interaction improved after implementing the IPE session. Students also reported higher scores for interprofessional learning. This indicates their willingness to participate in future interprofessional learning activities. Roles and responsibilities domain scores were slightly lower among both groups. Simulation-based activities including profession role exchange can be added to traditional IPE sessions to improve this domain.

Using Q-methodology to determine students' perceptions of interprofessional anatomy education

Interprofessional education (IPE) prepares healthcare students for collaboration in their future careers. The purpose of this study was to determine which aspects of the IPE Program in Anatomy at McMaster University contributed to the development of healthcare student's interprofessional skills. Q-methodology was used to identify the students' common viewpoints of the IPE experience. A total of 26/28 (93%) of students in the course from the medical, nursing, midwifery, physician assistant, occupational therapy, and physiotherapy programs participated in this study. Students were asked to sort a Q-sample of 43 statements about the IPE dissection course derived from previous qualitative studies of the program. Using the centroid factor extraction and varimax rotation, three salient factors (groups) emerged, namely: (1) Anatomy IPE Enthusiasts, (2) Practical IPE Advocates, and (3) Skeptical IPE Anatomists. The Anatomy IPE Enthusiasts believed that students from different disciplines brought unique anatomical knowledge and each group member guided others through difficult material. The Practical IPE Advocates expressed that they would be stronger advocates for interprofessional teams in the future because of the course. The Skeptical IPE Anatomists strongly disagreed that learning with students from different disciplines helped them gain an understanding of their roles in the context of other healthcare professionals and felt that there was little benefit from the IPE program compared to other non-interprofessional programs. These findings about student attitudes are critical to drive an evidence-based evolution of the IPE dissection course, since students' perceptions can have a profound influence on interprofessional collaboration in the workplace.

Ethische Fragen im Gesundheitswesen als Gegenstand interprofessionellen Lernens: Überblick zur Situation in Deutschland und Projektbericht

Interprofessionelles Lernen von Auszubildenden der Pflegeberufe sowie Medizinstudierenden bietet vielfältige Chancen für die zukünftige Zusammenarbeit mit dem Ziel einer qualitativ hochwertigen Versorgung von Patient*innen. Expert*innengremien fordern daher eine frühzeitige Integration von interprofessionellen Lehr- und Lernformaten, um effektive und nachhaltige Verbesserungen in der Praxis erreichen zu können. In Deutschland wird interprofessionelle Lehre in der grundständigen Ausbildung der zwei Professionen in wachsendem Umfang in ausgewählten Fächern – obligat oder fakultativ – eingesetzt. Der Bereich der Ethik im Gesundheitswesen wird dabei bislang jedoch kaum berücksichtigt. Der Beitrag untersucht die Situation interprofessioneller Ethiklehre in Deutschland und beleuchtet deren Möglichkeiten und Grenzen vor dem Hintergrund eines Pilotprojektes.

Interprofessional education in medical and physiotherapy studies for future collaboration

BACKGROUND

Interprofessional education (IPE) for medical and healthcare professions is highly relevant. It increases knowledge and skills, but also helps to foster the development of collaboration, which is essential for optimal patient care. One important aspect of IPE is to better understand profession's individual attitudes and perceptions towards interprofessionalism and the expected roles and skills for future collaboration in the context of patient care.

METHODS

We offered IPE workshops using a peer assisted learning approach, with the focus on anatomy in the area of the lower back and hip. The workshops were attended by medical and physiotherapy students and consisted of three consecutive training sessions with the topics anatomical prosections, anatomy in vivo and orthopedics testing. We focused on student's attitudes and perceptions regarding the relevance of IPE and their expected skills in interprofessionalism. An established questionnaire was used as an instrument for self-assessment before and after the interprofessional experience. To evaluate for significance, analysis was carried out for all groups on pre- and post-course item mean differences.

RESULTS

Pre-post score comparison for all groups combined demonstrated significant increase in terms of perceptions and attitudes for several items related to interprofessionalism and interprofessional skills. Medical and physiotherapy students rated themselves significantly higher for different questionnaire items. Students, who had obtained a professional qualification prior to their current studies, rated themselves significantly higher on certain items compared to those who had not.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from this brief interprofessional anatomy experience are encouraging. The course led to meaningful improvements in competencies that are highly relevant for effective interprofessional collaboration in the future. Furthermore, identification of differences in professional group perceptions can be useful for development of future IPE workshops.

Interprofessional Education: Medical Students Create a Cadaver Lab Workshop for Nursing Students at a Neutral Cost

Cadaver labs are one of the staples of medical education in the United States, yet it is relatively uncommon for nursing students to have the opportunity to engage in the direct observation, hands-on learning, and the efficiency of the immersive environment in a cadaver-based anatomy lab. The primary aim of this project was to determine if medical students could create and deliver a cadaver lab workshop for nursing students that would provide educational benefits to both groups of students at a neutral cost. The purpose of this activity was to evaluate how a cadaver lab for nursing students could increase understanding of clinically-relevant anatomy, disease, and indwelling medical devices, while enhancing overall clinical problem-solving skills. The participants, nursing and medical students, completed a five-hour workshop followed by completion of a four-question survey of their overall learning experience and the value of the workshop from an interprofessional perspective. The surveys were analyzed individually for qualitative central themes; similar central themes were compiled by question, and overarching themes were identified and reported. Self-reflections completed by the students revealed that this shared encounter between trainees resulted in a better understanding of the visualization of the size, spatial relations, and physical interactions between organ systems; increased confidence in patient care regarding the physical exam and medical device management; and a better-perceived understanding of each profession's approach in providing patient-centered care. Medical students may also benefit by participation in this interprofessional activity through the development of clinical teaching skills that are needed while working with patients and clinical colleagues.

Observing Interprofessional Collaboration: Impact on Attitude and Knowledge Acquisition

Interprofessional collaboration (IPC) in the medical field is an important factor for good clinical outcomes and should be taught as early as in undergraduate medical education. Since implementing IPC training is an organizational challenge, students are often limited in their opportunities to experience real-life IPC. Therefore, an approach where students observe successful IPC activities of role models in an applied anatomical format was proposed. It was studied whether observing IPC activities in undergraduate anatomical education has an impact on both students' attitude toward IPC and on knowledge acquisition. Further, it was examined whether the attitudes and knowledge of students from different medical disciplines were influenced in different ways. Therefore, 75 medical students and thirty-eight physiotherapy students participated in a study with the task of observing a live broadcast of an interprofessional teaching session. Participants were asked about their attitudes toward interprofessional learning, their evaluation of professional responsibilities, and their profession-specific knowledge before and after observing the IPC session. The participants' attitude toward interprofessional learning improved for both groups of students. Moreover, students of physiotherapy adjusted their evaluation of their own and others' professional responsibilities after observing IPC. In both student groups, knowledge increased, in particular, with respect to the field of knowledge in other professions. So, observing IPC can modify students' attitudes and support knowledge acquisition. The implementation of IPC observations provides students from various healthcare disciplines with a clearer impression of professionals' responsibilities and gives learners the opportunity to acquire knowledge from healthcare fields unfamiliar to them.

What Use is Anatomy in First Opinion Small Animal Veterinary Practice? A Qualitative Study

Despite the uncontested importance of anatomy as one of the foundational aspects of undergraduate veterinary programs, there is still limited information available as to what anatomy knowledge is most important for the graduate veterinarian in their daily clinical work. The aim of this study was therefore to gain a deeper understanding of the role that anatomy plays in first opinion small animal veterinary practice. Using ethnographic methodologies, the authors aimed to collect rich qualitative data to answer the question "How do first opinion veterinarians use anatomy knowledge in their day-to-day clinical practice?" Detailed observations and semi-structured interviews were conducted with five veterinarians working within a single small animal first opinion practice in the United Kingdom. Thematic analysis was undertaken, identifying five main themes: Importance; Uncertainty; Continuous learning; Comparative and dynamic anatomy; and Communication and language. Anatomy was found to be interwoven within all aspects of clinical practice; however, veterinarians were uncertain in their anatomy knowledge. This impacted their confidence and how they carried out their work. Veterinarians described continually learning and refreshing their anatomy knowledge in order to effectively undertake their role, highlighting the importance of teaching information literacy skills within anatomy curricula. An interrelationship between anatomy use, psychomotor, and professional skills was also highlighted. Based on these findings, recommendations were made for veterinary anatomy curriculum development. This study provides an in-depth view within a single site small animal general practice setting: further work is required to assess the transferability of these findings to other areas of veterinary practice.

Professional Attitudes in Health Professions' Education: The Effects of an Anatomy Near-Peer Learning Activity

Interprofessional attitudes existing between healthcare disciplines can negatively impact communication and collaboration in the clinical setting. While human anatomy is a topic central to healthcare trainees, the potential of the anatomy laboratory to minimize negative interprofessional attitudes has yet to be characterized. This study aimed to assess the effects of an anatomy interprofessional near-peer learning activity (AIP-NPLA) on medical and nursing students' interprofessional attitudes at McGill University. The authors employed a convergent parallel mixed methods study to explore participants' AIP-NPLA experiences. The Attitudes to Health Professionals Questionnaire (AHPQ) was used pre- and post-AIP-NPLA to assess participants' attitudes toward their own and their counterpart profession. In addition, a focus group was held immediately following the AIP-NPLA to explore participants' experiences and interprofessional perceptions. Quantitative results using a principal components analysis demonstrated significant changes in nursing students' responses between pre- and post-AIP-NPLA scoring, rating the medical profession as being more caring overall. Medical students' responses pre- and post-AIP-NPLA demonstrated no significant differences. Qualitative results also suggested a breakdown of negative attitudes, an increased understanding of inter- and intra-professional roles, and the importance of interprofessional collaboration and mutual learning for their careers. These findings revealed that attitudes among healthcare trainees may be positively restructured in the anatomy laboratory, allowing for collaborative care to predominate in current and future clinical practices.

Interprofessional team-based learning in basic sciences: students' attitude and perception of communication and teamwork

OBJECTIVES

To explore whether a team-based learning strategy applied to an interprofessional course on basic science changes students' perception of communication and teamwork skills and attitudes as related to interprofessional learning.

METHODS

A mixed-methods approach was utilized. The participants were selected through an opportunity sample of 33 first-semester anatomy students from occupational therapy and orthoptics programs. Students completed an interprofessional questionnaire before and after the course. The data were analyzed descriptively. Fourteen students were selected randomly for group interviews. Qualitative data was interpreted using thematic analyses.

RESULTS

The pre-test scores for 'communication and teamwork skills' and 'interprofessional learning' were high with mean values of 26.58 and 34.24, respectively. The post-test scores were 27.30 and 34.27, respectively, indicating no relevant changes in students' perception and attitudes. Qualitative data suggested that team-based learning represents a valid strategy to encourage communication and teamwork skills but revealed a lack of interprofessional exchange during the course. Students reported that classroom activities must require the professional knowledge of all participating groups in order to prevent a negative attitudinal shift towards interprofessional education in the later years of their studies.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementing team-based learning in basic sciences can encourage communication and teamwork among students. Mixed classes can help socialize students of different professional groups, although they carry a risk of a negative attitudinal shift towards interprofessional education. Whether, and in what ways, effective interprofessional exchange during the teaching of basic sciences can be achieved needs further investigation.

Interprofessional Education and Collaboration: Strategies for Implementation

Interprofessional education (IPE) is an integral educational outlook that is necessary to make sure that the graduates of an allied health care education are able to be valuable members or leaders of collaborative healthcare practices. Literature and resources are available about various models that have been used by different institutions to integrate IPE as part of their curriculum. With the growing need for collaborative practice, the curriculum must be designed to foster competencies required for IPE. There are challenges present, but with the concerted effort of the administration, faculty, and students, the benefits of IPE can be enjoyed by the institution and eventually by patients.

When new nurses talk, nursing organizations listen

As new nurse retention is a challenge for the nursing profession, nursing organizations must work to address the needs of these nurses, be a resource to meet their needs, and promote the importance of belonging to a professional organization. This article outlines one state nursing association's efforts to solicit feedback from new nurses in an online survey and describes the survey's findings and recommendations for future directions.

Interprofessional Education and Collaboration in Healthcare: An Exploratory Study of the Perspectives of Medical Students in the United States

Qualified and competent healthcare professionals working in a collaborative team environment is a prerequisite for high quality patient care. In order to be successful in the healthcare working environment, medical students need to be exposed to interprofessional learning early in their education. A single stage online survey was administered to medical students to evaluate their attitudes and perceptions of interprofessional education (IPE) and whether prior exposure to IPE increased their appreciation for interprofessional collaboration. The results suggest that irrespective of prior exposure to IPE, medical students appreciated the importance of interprofessional education and collaboration. Medical students showed a strong interest in attending interprofessional courses in other disciplines. Time constraints, scheduling conflicts, and communication emerged as barriers to IPE. Medical students embraced IPE and welcomed the opportunity to learn with other disciplines. Clinical case studies and simulations were identified as potential methods to integrate with other healthcare disciplines. The positive attitude and perceptions of the medical students toward interprofessional education and collaboration warrants the inclusion of related courses in medical curricula, as this may further increase students' potentials in becoming effective healthcare providers.

Nursing and medical students near-peer activity in the anatomy laboratory: format for success

BACKGROUND/AIMS

An anatomy interprofessional near-peer learning activity (AIP-NPLA) between nursing and medical students was piloted to assess its implementability. This study aimed to: (1) identify key factors of feasibility and (2) describe student-group perceptions of their experience of the interprofessional education (IPE) activity.

METHODS

A total of 59 medical and 179 nursing students participated in the AIP-NPLA whereby medical students were asked to facilitate and lead group discussions with their nursing students colleagues on an anatomical topic using a donor cadaver. Each AIP-NPLA session lasted a total of two hours. A mixed methods approach was employed using both quantitative and qualitative means of assessment. Variables such as Readiness for Interprofessional Learning, Professional Self-Identity, Clinical Teaching Preference, and Near-Peer Teaching and Learning Experience were assessed quantitatively using validated surveys. Qualitative measures included thematic content analysis of focus group interviews conducted following the AIP-NPLA to capture the perceptions of the student groups' experience in the IPE activity.

RESULTS

The results of this investigation demonstrated that there are key factors to consider when designing successful and sustainable IPE activities; the level of clinical exposure and therefore student-group pairing based on professional self-identify scores, optimal tutor-to-tutee group ratios and an activity format that maintained an informal, flexible and free forum for discussion on a topic of common knowledge. Focus group interviews also revealed reflections on professional stereotypes.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that early implementation of IPE activities outside of a clinical setting are beneficial and can foster both learning from one another and positive perceptions of interprofessional roles when carefully designed.

Peer Tutoring for Anatomy Workshops in Cambodia

Historical loss of staff and teaching resources in Cambodia has resulted in significant challenges to anatomy education. Small group anatomy teaching opportunities are limited. A visit to Cambodia by a teaching team from the University of Melbourne in 2010 demonstrated it was possible to implement well-resourced anatomy workshops for this purpose. However, continuation of the workshop program was inhibited by the limited number of local teaching staff. In 2015, another team from the University of Melbourne returned to Cambodia to implement anatomy workshops that incorporated peer tutoring. The objective was to improve teacher-to-student ratios and to demonstrate that interactive anatomy workshops could be delivered successfully despite low staff numbers. The anatomy workshops were attended by 404 students of Medicine, Dentistry, Nursing, and Midwifery at the University of Puthisastra. Medical students were invited to act as peer tutors for nursing students. A five-point Likert scale questionnaire was used to determine student satisfaction with both the workshops and peer tutoring. The overwhelming majority were positive about the workshops and keen for them to continue. Almost all medical students who acted as peer tutors agreed or strongly agreed that this role increased their anatomical knowledge (98%) and confidence (94%). Most nursing students agreed or strongly agreed with statements that they would like peer tutoring to continue (94%) and that they would like to be peer tutors themselves (88%). This report demonstrates that peer tutoring could be an effective tool in educational settings where poor staff-to-student ratios limit delivery of interactive workshops.

Toolbox of teaching strategies

A teaching strategy is a method, which can help students to gain knowledge, deliver information, and improve their learning. Different learning environments, such as clinical teaching, online teaching, and face-to-face traditional learning environments, require different teaching strategies for students. Choosing teaching strategies for a course is very important for nurse educators because various factors should be taken into account to make students meet the learning outcomes. The use of modern technologies in teaching strategies can improve students’ competencies and confidences. The purpose of this article is to create a toolbox integrating ten teaching strategies that can be used in different teaching environments.

Medical Student Ultrasound Education: A WFUMB Position Paper, Part I

The introduction of ultrasound into medical student education is well underway in many locations around the world, but is still in its infancy or has yet to begin in others. Proper incorporation of ultrasound education into medical training requires planning and resources, both capital and human. In this article, we discuss the state of the art of ultrasound in medical education throughout the world, as well as various methodologies utilized to improve student education and to incorporate ultrasound into every facet of training. Experiences from various educational systems and available evidence regarding the impact of ultrasound education are summarized. Representing multiple societies and specialties throughout the world, we discuss established modern as well as novel education structures and different successful approaches.

Effects of interprofessional education for medical and nursing students: enablers, barriers and expectations for optimizing future interprofessional collaboration - a qualitative study

Background

To ensure high quality patient care an effective interprofessional collaboration between healthcare professionals is required. Interprofessional education (IPE) has a positive impact on team work in daily health care practice. Nevertheless, there are various challenges for sustainable implementation of IPE. To identify enablers and barriers of IPE for medical and nursing students as well as to specify impacts of IPE for both professions, the 'Cooperative academical regional evidence-based Nursing Study in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania' (Care-N Study M-V) was conducted. The aim is to explore, how IPE has to be designed and implemented in medical and nursing training programs to optimize students' impact for IPC.

Methods

A qualitative study was conducted using the Delphi method and included 25 experts. Experts were selected by following inclusion criteria: (a) ability to answer every research question, one question particularly competent, (b) interdisciplinarity, (c) sustainability and (d) status. They were purposely sampled. Recruitment was based on existing collaborations and a web based search.

Results

The experts find more enablers than barriers for IPE between medical and nursing students. Four primary arguments for IPE were mentioned: (1) development and promotion of interprofessional thinking and acting, (2) acquirement of shared knowledge, (3) promotion of beneficial information and knowledge exchange, and (4) promotion of mutual understanding. Major barriers of IPE are the coordination and harmonization of the curricula of the two professions. With respect to the effects of IPE for IPC, experts mentioned possible improvements on (a) patient level and (b) professional level. Experts expect an improved patient-centered care based on better mutual understanding and coordinated cooperation in interprofessional health care teams. To sustainably implement IPE for medical and nursing students, IPE needs endorsement by both, medical and nursing faculties.

Conclusion

In conclusion, IPE promotes interprofessional cooperation between the medical and the nursing profession. Skills in interprofessional communication and roles understanding will be primary preconditions to improve collaborative patient-centered care. The impact of IPE for patients and caregivers as well as for both professions now needs to be more specifically analysed in prospective intervention studies.

Integrating the social determinants of health into two interprofessional courses: Findings from a pilot study

Five colleges and universities in Upstate New York, United States, created the 'Route-90 Collaborative' to support faculty implementing the Institute of Medicine's (IOM) Framework for Educating Health Professionals to Address the Social Determinants of Health. The two courses described herein used a flipped classroom approach in which students from 14 different nations were responsible for facilitating individual classes. This descriptive study used an educational intervention in two interprofessional courses - reproductive health and global health - based on the IOM Framework into two courses. The evaluation used quantitative and open-ended text response data from students. Course evaluations indicated the students found the courses helped them to learn more about health issues and service delivery in various countries, expand their knowledge base on sociocultural and ecological influences on health care, and broaden their perspectives on various health topics so they will be able to provide higher quality healthcare. Although this is the first effort of our Collaborative to implement the Framework, given the student feedback, we believe implementing the Framework in various courses has the potential to enhance healthcare service delivery and reduce the negative impact of social determinants of health.

Effectiveness of interprofessional education in renal physiology curricula for health sciences graduate students

The primary purpose of conducting an interprofessional education (IPE) experience during the renal physiology block of a graduate-level course was to provide basic science, physical therapy, and physician assistant graduate students with an opportunity to work as a team in the diagnosis, treatment, and collaborative care of a patient with acute kidney injury. The secondary purpose was to enhance the understanding of basic renal physiology principles with a patient case presentation of renal pathophysiology. The overall purpose was to assess the value of IPE integration within a basic science course by examining student perceptions and program evaluation. Graduate-level students operated in interprofessional teams while working through an acute kidney injury patient case. The following Interprofessional Education Collaborative subcompetencies were targeted: Roles/Responsibilities (RR) Behavioral Expectations (RR1, RR4) and Interprofessional Communication (CC) Behavioral Expectations (CC4). Clinical and IPE stimulus questions were discussed both within and between teams with assistance provided by faculty facilitators. Students were given a pre- and postsurvey to determine their knowledge of IPE. There were statistically significant increases from pre- to postsurvey scores for all six IPE questions for all students. Physical therapy and physician assistant students had a statistically significant increase in pre- to postsurvey scores, indicating a more favorable perception of their interprofessional competence for RR1, RR4, and CC4. No changes were noted in pre- to postsurvey scores for basic science graduate students. Incorporating planned IPE experiences into multidisciplinary health science courses represents an appropriate venue to have students learn and apply interprofessional competencies.

Interprofessionality in the model courses of study for healthcare and nursing professions in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany / Interprofessionalität in den Modellstudiengängen der Pflege- und Gesundheitsberufe in Nordrhein-Westfalen

Interprofessional cooperation is attributed a special significance in overcoming new challenges in the health system. For the educational system, this means the development of innovative teaching and learning formats that encourages interaction between students from different professions within healthcare. In Germany in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), eleven model courses of study for healthcare and nursing professions have been developed and evaluated. Evaluation reports do not tell whether social interaction between students of different professions is promoted. The following study investigates to what extent interprofessionality is incorporated into the model courses of study for healthcare and nursing professions in NRW and to what extent the courses of study include social interaction between students of different professions. In addition, an analysis is made as to what extent structural and organisational conditions and the course management influence the (further) development of the courses with a view to interprofessionality. Structured expert interviews have been carried out with those responsible for the courses of study, for a total of seven model courses. These have then been evaluated using qualitative content analysis. The promotion of interprofessional expertise is incorporated into all model study courses that were considered and is generally governed by international standards. Six of the seven courses of study offer social interaction between students of different professions. Valuable hints for interprofessional education at colleges for health could be achieved.

Can CanMEDS competencies be developed in medical school anatomy laboratories? A literature review

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this literature review was to identify potential ways in which undergraduate medical anatomy education may be relevant to the CanMEDS Roles, a competency-based framework used throughout Canadian medical training.

METHODS

A scoping review of medical education literature was conducted in March 2017 for English language publications that included key words related to anatomy education and to key competencies formally described for each of the Roles in the CanMEDS 2015 framework. Indicated benefits were then collated, characterized, and synthesized for each CanMEDS Role.

RESULTS

There were 71 studies identified describing original findings. Perceived benefits of anatomy education were most often identified for competencies related to the Medical Expert Role. Multiple studies also cited benefits related to the Scholar, Professional and Collaborator Roles. There was a lack of literature related to the Health Advocate, Communicator, and Leader Roles. The majority of benefits defined in the literature were limited to student perceptions rather than objectively measured outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

There is some evidence to suggest that anatomy education can facilitate the development of core competencies related to several CanMEDS Roles, outside of simply developing medical knowledge in the Medical Expert Role. Future studies need to develop methods to objectively assess outcomes related to these competencies.

Ultrasound imaging in medical student education: Impact on learning anatomy and physical diagnosis

Ultrasound use has expanded dramatically among the medical specialties for diagnostic and interventional purposes, due to its affordability, portability, and practicality. This imaging modality, which permits real-time visualization of anatomic structures and relationships in vivo, holds potential for pre-clinical instruction of students in anatomy and physical diagnosis, as well as providing a bridge to the eventual use of bedside ultrasound by clinicians to assess patients and guide invasive procedures. In many studies, but not all, improved understanding of anatomy has been demonstrated, and in others, improved accuracy in selected aspects of physical diagnosis is evident. Most students have expressed a highly favorable impression of this technology for anatomy education when surveyed. Logistic issues or obstacles to the integration of ultrasound imaging into anatomy teaching appear to be readily overcome. The enthusiasm of students and anatomists for teaching with ultrasound has led to widespread implementation of ultrasound-based teaching initiatives in medical schools the world over, including some with integration throughout the entire curriculum; a trend that likely will continue to grow. Anat Sci Educ 10: 176-189. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.

Attitude towards and Readiness for Interprofessional Education in Medical and Nursing Students of Bern

Objectives: Interprofessional collaboration is becoming increasingly important in health care for various reasons. Interprofessional Education (IPE) can provide a basis for this. The aim of our study was to find out how medical (MS) and nursing students (NS) think about their own and other professions, what they know about each other, how strong their willingness to embrace IPE is, and what forms of IPE they deem useful. Methodology: Seven IPE experts rated the two measuring instruments, Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale RIPLS, and Interdisciplinary Education Perception Scale IEPS in terms of relevance of the items, and the quality of translation into German. Nine RIPLS items and 13 IEPS items were considered content-valid. All MS of the University of Bern and NS of the two Bernese educational institutions for nursing were invited to the online survey in the fall of 2014 by email. Results: 498 (254 MS, 244 NS) of the 2374 invited students completely filled in the questionnaire (21%). The results of the reduced RIPLS allowed no conclusive statements. When assessing their own occupational group in the IEPS, the MS attributed "competence and autonomy" to themselves significantly more frequently, while to the NS, the same was true for the item, "actual cooperation". MS know significantly less about the training of other health professionals. NS show a significantly higher willingness to embrace IPE. Teaching ethics, communication, team training, and clinical skills are deemed suitable for IPE by both groups. From the comments it appears that in both groups a majority welcomes IPE; however, the various arguments had different prevalence in both groups. Both groups fear that IPE leads to heightened stress during the study. A subgroup of MS fears a lowering of academic level. Conclusion: The results of this survey of Bernese MS and NS concerning IPE provide important information for the planning and implementation of IPE. Important steps in the introduction of IPE will be a clear justification and the definition of its objectives. These must be explicitly communicated to all students.

Currently Available Tools and Teaching Strategies for the Interprofessional Education of Students in Health Professions: Literature review

Interprofessional education (IPE) is designed to provide students from different health sectors with opportunities to work together to enhance future collaboration. The implementation of IPE activities is a current trend in various countries. This review exclusively targets IPE issues involving undergraduate health profession students and highlights various approaches in different regions. A total of 28 articles published in peer-reviewed journals between January 2012 and July 2015 were assessed to determine recent trends in IPE implementation. Nine main strategies were identified: simulation-based education programmes; rotations in rural and community settings; interprofessional training wards; patient-centred case studies; theme-centred workshops; student seminars; student-delivered lectures; health promotion activities; and interactive lectures in a common setting. Many of these institutions had not restricted themselves to a single strategy and supplemented these activities with additional teaching or learning methods. Recommendations gathered from these diverse approaches may assist the development of sustainable strategies for implementing IPE in undergraduate medical curricula.

A Comparison of Fourth-Year Health Sciences Students' Knowledge of Gross Lower and Upper Limb Anatomy: A Cross-Sectional Study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to assess and compare the knowledge of fourth-year medicine, physiotherapy (PT), nursing, and podiatry students in carpal and tarsal bone anatomy.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was carried out. Based on a nonprobability convenience sampling, 177 fourth-year students (117 women and 60 men, mean age of 23.16 ± 3.82 years) from the podiatry (n = 39), nursing (n = 26), PT (n = 73), and medicine (n = 39) schools at a large Spanish university were included. Measurements were taken of their gross anatomy knowledge by means of the carpal and the tarsal bone tests. Students were asked to identify all carpal and tarsal bones in an illustration of the bony skeleton of both regions and were given a maximum of 5 minutes per test.

RESULTS

Of a total of 15 bones to be labeled, the PT (11.07 ± 3.30) and podiatry (9.36 ± 2.93) students had the highest rate of correct answers compared with the medicine (6.13 ± 3.27) and nursing (4.04 ± 3.72) undergraduates. When assessing academic degrees and test scores, significant differences were observed between PT and podiatry participants vs those from the medicine and nursing schools (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

Fourth-year students from the PT and podiatry programs correctly identified a higher number of carpal and tarsal bones than students from the nursing and medicine schools.

The Conversion of a Peer Teaching Course in the Puncture of Peripheral Veins for Medical Students into an Interprofessional Course

OBJECTIVE

There is a great interest on both a national and international level in promoting cooperation between different occupational groups within the healthcare professions through interprofessional education (IPE) [1], [2], [3]. Within this project, a peer teaching course on the puncture of peripheral veins was therefore converted from a course for medical students into an IPE learning unit. Students from different occupational groups were to learn within the context of this course, according to the definition from the World Health Organisation (WHO), with and from each other [1].

PROJECT DESCRIPTION

This course constituted a small group class in the peer teaching format. The didactic principle was based on the idea that the students were to practice the respective practical skills in pairs and give each other reciprocal feedback. Together with the Department for Health at the Bern University of Applied Sciences (BUAS) and the Bern Center of Higher Education of Nusing (BCHEN), the course, which was conducted by the Institute of Medical Education at the University of Bern (IME), was converted into a voluntary IPE pilot project. Students from all three institutions were represented in terms of participants as well as tutors.

RESULTS

The course was evaluated very positively by participants, peer tutors and the participating institutions. By means of an OSCE, it could be proven that the course content had been successfully imparted. On the basis of these results, it was determined that the course should be compulsory in the future for students at all three institutions.

DISCUSSION

The evaluation results show the successful conversion of the course into an IPE format within the context of the pilot project. The interactive format of the course created the prerequisite that the students from different professional groups learned with and from each other in actuality, and did not just study the same objectives at the same time as with multiprofessional learning. Cooperation between the three institutions is a cornerstone for the development of a research structure which may examine the effect of IPE in the future.

Interprofessional anatomy education in the United Kingdom and Ireland: Perspectives from students and teachers

There is increasing recognition of multiprofessional learning in anatomy and its role in medical and healthcare professions. This study utilized two components to investigate anatomy interprofessional education (AIPE) in the United Kingdom and Ireland. First, a survey involving qualitative and quantitative components asked Heads of Anatomy to report on their institutions' uptake of AIPE. Second, a series of case studies explored the experiences of students by using evaluation forms and an in-depth analysis of thematic concepts to understand the learners' perspectives on designing and delivering AIPE. Out of the 13 institutions that took part in the survey, eight did not offer an AIPE program. Between the remaining five institutions that deliver AIPE programs, 10 different modules are offered with the majority involving healthcare professions. The AIPE component is rated highly by students. The themes from the case studies highlight how valuable AIPE is from the student perspective both in terms of engaging them in anatomy as well as in the broader skills of teamwork and communication. The case studies also revealed how AIPE can be engaging for groups of students who might not have previously had access to cadaveric anatomy, for example, engineers and archeologists. The results of this study have implications for curriculum design in medicine and healthcare but also for further engagement of professional groups from non-healthcare backgrounds.

Good teaching is good teaching: A narrative review for effective medical educators

Educators have tried for many years to define teaching and effective teachers. More specifically, medical educators have tried to define what characteristics are common to successful teachers in the healthcare arena. The goal of teacher educators has long been to determine what makes an effective teacher so that they could do a better job of preparing future teachers to have a positive impact on the learning of their students. Medical educators have explored what makes some of their colleagues more able than others to facilitate the development of healthcare professionals who can successfully and safely meet the needs of future patients. Although there has historically been disagreement regarding the characteristics that need be developed in order for teachers to be effective, educational theorists have consistently agreed that becoming an effective teacher is a complex task. Such discussions have been central to deciding what education at any level is really all about. By exploring the literature and reflecting upon the personal experiences encountered in his lengthy career as a teacher, and as a teacher of teachers, the author reaches the conclusions that teaching is both art and science, that "good teaching is good teaching" regardless of the learning environment or the subject to be explored, and that the characteristics making up an effective medical educator are really not much different than those making up effective educators in any other area.

Frank Netter's legacy: Interprofessional anatomy instruction

Several medical schools have recently described new innovations in interprofessional interactions in gross anatomy courses. The Frank H. Netter MD School of Medicine at Quinnipiac University in Hamden, CT has developed and implemented two contrasting interprofessional experiences in first-year medical student gross anatomy dissection laboratories: long-term, informal visits by pathologists' assistant students who work with the medical students to identify potential donor pathologies, and a short-term, formal visit by fourth-year dental students who teach craniofacial anatomy during the oral cavity dissection laboratory. A survey of attitudes of participants was analyzed and suggest the interprofessional experiences were mutually beneficial for all involved, and indicate that implementing multiple, contrasting interprofessional interactions with different goals within a single course is feasible. Two multiple regression analyses were conducted to analyze the data. The first analysis examined attitudes of medical students towards a pathologists' assistant role in a health care team. The question addressing a pathologists' assistant involvement in the anatomy laboratory was most significant. The second analysis examined attitudes of medical students towards the importance of a good foundation in craniofacial anatomy for clinical practice. This perceived importance is influenced by the presence of dental students in the anatomy laboratory. In both instances, the peer interprofessional interactions in the anatomy laboratory resulted in an overall positive attitude of medical students towards pathologists' assistant and dental students. The consequences of these interactions led to better understanding, appreciation and respect of the different professionals that contribute to a health care team.

Long-term effect of a short interprofessional education interaction between medical and physical therapy students

Medicine is increasingly focused on team-based practice as interprofessional cooperation leads to better patient care. Thus, it is necessary to teach teamwork and collaboration with other health care professionals in undergraduate medical education to ensure that trainees entering the workforce are prepared to work in teams. Gross anatomy provides an opportunity to expose students to interprofessional education (IPE) early in their training. The purpose of this study is to describe an IPE experience and report if the experience has lasting influence on the participating students. The Readiness for Interprofessional Learning Scale (RIPLS) questionnaire was administered to first year medical (MD) and physical therapy (PT) students at Mayo Medical School and Mayo School of Health Sciences. Results demonstrated an openness on the part of the students to IPE. Interprofessional education experiences were incorporated into gross anatomy courses in both medical and PT curricula. The IPE experiences included a social event, peer-teaching, and collaborative clinical problem-solving sessions. These sessions enhanced gross anatomy education by reinforcing previous material and providing the opportunity to work on clinical cases from the perspective of two healthcare disciplines. After course completion, students again completed the RIPLS. Finally, one year after course completion, students were asked to provide feedback on their experience. The post-curricular RIPLS, similar to the pre-curricular RIPLS, illustrated openness to IPE from both MD and PT students. There were however, significant differences in MD and PT perceptions of roles and responsibilities. One-year follow-up indicated long-term retention of lessons learned during IPE.

Student perceptions of an interprofessional educational experience: The importance of goal articulation

The education of future health care professionals must involve activities where interprofessional collaboration and the functioning of interdisciplinary teams are the goals and not the exceptions. This type of interprofessional education (IPE) will benefit students as they will be better able to communicate with and mobilize the skills of other health care workers, work toward common goals related to patient care, and develop a more cost-effective treatment strategy in the long term. Such an IPE program was initiated in the clinical anatomy course for physician assistant students from the University of Mount Union that was taught, in part, by medical students from the Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University. Surveys of both student groups at the end of the course indicated that although this was a useful IPE experience, the value of this program as an IPE experience was not entirely appreciated by the participating students. It turned out that although the goals and importance of these types of IPE activities are clear to the faculty, they must also be made clear to all of the students.

Interprofessional education and the basic sciences: Rationale and outcomes

Interprofessional education (IPE) aims to improve patient outcomes and the quality of care. Interprofessional learning outcomes and interprofessional competencies are now included in many countries' health and social care professions' accreditation standards. While IPE may take place at any time in health professions curricula it tends to focus on professionalism and clinical topics rather than basic science activities. However generic interprofessional competencies could be included in basic science courses that are offered to at least two different professional groups. In developing interprofessional activities at the preclinical level, it is important to define explicit interprofessional learning outcomes plus the content and process of the learning. Interprofessional education must involve interactive learning processes and integration of theory and practice. This paper provides examples of IPE in anatomy and makes recommendations for course development and evaluation.

Interprofessional education: The magical mystery tour now less of a mystery

Interprofessional education (IPE) is on today's agenda in medical education as a response to advances in medicine, the changes that have taken place in healthcare delivery, and pressures from the public and the profession. Although attention has focused on IPE in the later stages of the education program, there are benefits to be gained from the introduction of IPE in the early years. Curriculum developments supporting this include the adoption of outcome-based education and vertical integration. There is also a recognition that students' attitudes and biases are formed early in their education and the appropriate learning environment in the early years is important. Interprofessional education in the early years can also be seen as a part of a more general trend to greater collaboration in the delivery of an education program in the healthcare professions. Anatomy by incorporating IPE can help shape the future of medical education as well as being shaped by it. The possibility of success or failure with IPE can be captured with the equation IPE = (V × I)/N, where V = the IPE vision, I = the implementation strategy and N = negative perceptions of the approach. Success is more likely where there is a well thought out and shared vision for what is to be achieved, an appropriate implementation strategy and a plan to counteract a negative mind-set.

Designing learning spaces for interprofessional education in the anatomical sciences

This article explores connections between interprofessional education (IPE) models and the design of learning spaces for undergraduate and graduate education in the anatomical sciences and other professional preparation. The authors argue that for IPE models to be successful and sustained they must be embodied in the environment in which interprofessional learning occurs. To elaborate these arguments, two exemplar tertiary education facilities are discussed: the Charles Perkins Centre at the University of Sydney for science education and research, and Victoria University's Interprofessional Clinic in Wyndham for undergraduate IPE in health care. Backed by well-conceived curriculum and pedagogical models, the architectures of these facilities embody the educational visions, methods, and practices they were designed to support. Subsequently, the article discusses the spatial implications of curriculum and pedagogical change in the teaching of the anatomical sciences and explores how architecture might further the development of IPE models in the field. In conclusion, it is argued that learning spaces should be designed and developed (socially) with the expressed intention of supporting collaborative IPE models in health education settings, including those in the anatomical sciences.