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Nowling D, Crum KI, Joseph J. Sex differences in development of functional connections in the face processing network. J Neuroimaging 2024; 34:280-290. [PMID: 38169075 PMCID: PMC10939922 DOI: 10.1111/jon.13185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 12/16/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Understanding sex differences in typical development of the face processing network is important for elucidating disruptions during atypical development in sex-linked developmental disorders like autism spectrum disorder. Based on prior sex difference studies in other cognitive domains, this study examined whether females show increased integration of core and extended face regions with age for face viewing, while males would show increased segregation. METHODS This study used a cross-sectional design with typically developing children and adults (n = 133) and a functional MRI face localizer task. Psychophysiological interaction (PPI) analysis examined functional connectivity between canonical and extended face processing network regions with age, with greater segregation indexed by decreased core-extended region connectivity with age and greater integration indexed by increased core-extended region connectivity with age. RESULTS PPI analysis confirmed increased segregation for males-right fusiform face area (FFA) coupling to right inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) opercular when viewing faces and left amygdala when viewing objects decreased with age. Females showed increased integration with age (increased coupling of the right FFA to right IFG opercular region and right occipital face area [OFA] to right IFG orbital when viewing faces and objects, respectively) and increased segregation (decreased coupling with age of the right OFA with IFG opercular region when viewing faces). CONCLUSIONS Development of core and extended face processing network connectivity follows sexually dimorphic paths. These differential changes mostly occur across childhood and adolescence, with males experiencing segregation and females both segregation and integration changes in connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan Nowling
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | - Kathleen I. Crum
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
- Department of Psychiatry, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN
| | - Jane Joseph
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
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Ross LA, Molholm S, Butler JS, Del Bene VA, Brima T, Foxe JJ. Neural correlates of audiovisual narrative speech perception in children and adults on the autism spectrum: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Autism Res 2024; 17:280-310. [PMID: 38334251 DOI: 10.1002/aur.3104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Autistic individuals show substantially reduced benefit from observing visual articulations during audiovisual speech perception, a multisensory integration deficit that is particularly relevant to social communication. This has mostly been studied using simple syllabic or word-level stimuli and it remains unclear how altered lower-level multisensory integration translates to the processing of more complex natural multisensory stimulus environments in autism. Here, functional neuroimaging was used to examine neural correlates of audiovisual gain (AV-gain) in 41 autistic individuals to those of 41 age-matched non-autistic controls when presented with a complex audiovisual narrative. Participants were presented with continuous narration of a story in auditory-alone, visual-alone, and both synchronous and asynchronous audiovisual speech conditions. We hypothesized that previously identified differences in audiovisual speech processing in autism would be characterized by activation differences in brain regions well known to be associated with audiovisual enhancement in neurotypicals. However, our results did not provide evidence for altered processing of auditory alone, visual alone, audiovisual conditions or AV- gain in regions associated with the respective task when comparing activation patterns between groups. Instead, we found that autistic individuals responded with higher activations in mostly frontal regions where the activation to the experimental conditions was below baseline (de-activations) in the control group. These frontal effects were observed in both unisensory and audiovisual conditions, suggesting that these altered activations were not specific to multisensory processing but reflective of more general mechanisms such as an altered disengagement of Default Mode Network processes during the observation of the language stimulus across conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars A Ross
- The Frederick J. and Marion A. Schindler Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, The Ernest J. Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA
- Department of Imaging Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA
- The Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Departments of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Sophie Molholm
- The Frederick J. and Marion A. Schindler Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, The Ernest J. Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA
- The Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Departments of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - John S Butler
- The Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Departments of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
- School of Mathematics and Statistics, Technological University Dublin, City Campus, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Victor A Del Bene
- The Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Departments of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
- Heersink School of Medicine, Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Tufikameni Brima
- The Frederick J. and Marion A. Schindler Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, The Ernest J. Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - John J Foxe
- The Frederick J. and Marion A. Schindler Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, The Ernest J. Del Monte Institute for Neuroscience, Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York, USA
- The Cognitive Neurophysiology Laboratory, Departments of Pediatrics and Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine & Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, USA
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Hattori R, Irie K, Mori T, Tsurumi K, Murai T, Inadomi H. Sensory processing, autonomic nervous function, and social participation in people with mental illnesses. Hong Kong J Occup Ther 2023; 36:39-47. [PMID: 37332298 PMCID: PMC10273795 DOI: 10.1177/15691861231177355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction This study investigated the relationship between sensory processing, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, and social participation in people with psychiatric disorders. Method This study recruited 30 participants, primarily women, from a psychiatric university hospital with a mental health diagnosis listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fifth Edition (mean age: 37.7 ± 16.0 years). Sensory processing, autonomic nervous function, and social participation were measured using the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile®, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, and World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule, respectively. Through mediation analysis, a model wherein sensory processing mediated the relationship between respiratory sinus arrhythmia and social participation was developed. Results Social participation was moderately to highly correlated with Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile® quadrants (excluding sensory seeking) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Furthermore, the mediation analysis revealed that sensory avoiding mediated the relationship between respiratory sinus arrhythmia and social participation, consequently counteracting the direct relationship. Conclusion A mediation model was constructed, which indicated that individuals with psychiatric disorders and low parasympathetic nervous system activity expressed higher sensory processing quadrant of sensory avoiding. Ultimately, this was associated with reduced social participation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ritsuko Hattori
- Department of Day Care Units, Hospital of Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Keisuke Irie
- Department of Advanced Occupational Therapy, Human Health Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Taisuke Mori
- Department of Day Care Units, Hospital of Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Kosuke Tsurumi
- Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Toshiya Murai
- Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Inadomi
- Department of Advanced Occupational Therapy, Human Health Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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Zhou R, Xie X, Wang J, Ma B, Hao X. Why do children with autism spectrum disorder have abnormal visual perception? Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1087122. [PMID: 37255685 PMCID: PMC10225551 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1087122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is associated with severe impairment in social functioning. Visual information processing provides nonverbal cues that support social interactions. ASD children exhibit abnormalities in visual orientation, continuous visual exploration, and visual-spatial perception, causing social dysfunction, and mechanisms underlying these abnormalities remain unclear. Transmission of visual information depends on the retina-lateral geniculate nucleus-visual cortex pathway. In ASD, developmental abnormalities occur in rapid expansion of the visual cortex surface area with constant thickness during early life, causing abnormal transmission of the peak of the visual evoked potential (P100). We hypothesized that abnormal visual perception in ASD are related to the abnormal visual information transmission and abnormal development of visual cortex in early life, what's more, explored the mechanisms of abnormal visual symptoms to provide suggestions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongyi Zhou
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xinyue Xie
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jiaojiao Wang
- Henan Provincial People's Hospital, Henan Institute of Ophthalmology, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Bingxiang Ma
- Department of Pediatrics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xin Hao
- Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
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Ma H, Cao Y, Li M, Zhan L, Xie Z, Huang L, Gao Y, Jia X. Abnormal amygdala functional connectivity and deep learning classification in multifrequency bands in autism spectrum disorder: A multisite functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Hum Brain Mapp 2023; 44:1094-1104. [PMID: 36346215 PMCID: PMC9875923 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.26141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have explored resting-state functional connectivity (rs-FC) of the amygdala in patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it remains unclear whether there are frequency-specific FC alterations of the amygdala in ASD and whether FC in specific frequency bands can be used to distinguish patients with ASD from typical controls (TCs). Data from 306 patients with ASD and 314 age-matched and sex-matched TCs were collected from 28 sites in the Autism Brain Imaging Data Exchange database. The bilateral amygdala, defined as the seed regions, was used to perform seed-based FC analyses in the conventional, slow-5, and slow-4 frequency bands at each site. Image-based meta-analyses were used to obtain consistent brain regions across 28 sites in the three frequency bands. By combining generative adversarial networks and deep neural networks, a deep learning approach was applied to distinguish patients with ASD from TCs. The meta-analysis results showed frequency band specificity of FC in ASD, which was reflected in the slow-5 frequency band instead of the conventional and slow-4 frequency bands. The deep learning results showed that, compared with the conventional and slow-4 frequency bands, the slow-5 frequency band exhibited a higher accuracy of 74.73%, precision of 74.58%, recall of 75.05%, and area under the curve of 0.811 to distinguish patients with ASD from TCs. These findings may help us to understand the pathological mechanisms of ASD and provide preliminary guidance for the clinical diagnosis of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huibin Ma
- School of Information and Electronics Technology, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Yikang Cao
- School of Information and Electronics Technology, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Mengting Li
- College of Teacher Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Key Laboratory of Intelligent Education Technology and Application, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China
| | - Linlin Zhan
- Faculty of Western Languages, Heilongjiang University, Harbin, China
| | - Zhou Xie
- School of Information and Electronics Technology, Jiamusi University, Jiamusi, China
| | - Lina Huang
- Department of Radiology, Changshu No. 2 People's Hospital, The Affiliated Changshu Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Changshu, China
| | - Yanyan Gao
- College of Teacher Education, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China.,Key Laboratory of Intelligent Education Technology and Application, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, China
| | - Xize Jia
- Department of Radiology, Changshu No. 2 People's Hospital, The Affiliated Changshu Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Changshu, China
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Abstract
Autism research has recently witnessed an embodied turn. In response to the cognitivist approaches dominating the field, phenomenological scholars have suggested a reconceptualization of autism as a disorder of embodied intersubjectivity. Part of this interest in autistic embodiment concerns the role of sensory differences, which have recently been added to the diagnostic criteria of autism. While research suggests that sensory differences are implicated in a wide array of autistic social difficulties, it has not yet been explored how sensory and social experience in autism relate on a phenomenological level. Given the importance of the sensory dimension of social encounters in phenomenological analyses of autism, this question must be considered crucial. This article investigates the role played by sensory differences in autistic social experience. Through a phenomenological analysis informed primarily by the philosophy of Maurice Merleau-Ponty with particular emphasis on the relation between intersubjectivity and perception, I argue that sensory differences affect the way other people appear in autistic experience on a pre-reflective level. By drawing on autistic young adults’ experiential descriptions of social encounters, this article identifies three aspects of how sensory differences affect social experiences in autism. First, social encounters manifested as sensorially disturbing, chaotic, and unpredictable events. Second, the embodied expressions of others appeared unfamiliar, threatening, and promoted a sense of detachment from the social world. Third, deliberate practices were employed to actively seek perceptual and social meaning in these disorienting social encounters. This analysis stresses the importance of understanding embodied intersubjectivity through its sensory dimensions. In addition, it indicates an important avenue for future research in exploring the potential role of practice in maintaining an intuitive grip on social meaning. By approaching social encounters as sensory and perceptual events, I emphasize how social difficulties in autism are inherently world-involving phenomena rather than a cognitive deficit reducible to the autistic person.
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van den Boogert F, Klein K, Spaan P, Sizoo B, Bouman YHA, Hoogendijk WJG, Roza SJ. Sensory processing difficulties in psychiatric disorders: A meta-analysis. J Psychiatr Res 2022; 151:173-180. [PMID: 35489177 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2021] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In clinical practice, many individuals with psychiatric disorders report difficulties in sensory processing, including increased awareness or sensitivity to external stimuli. In this meta-analysis, we examined the sensory processing patterns of adolescent and adult individuals with a broad spectrum of different psychiatric conditions. A systematic search in various databases resulted in the inclusion of 33 studies (N=2008), all using the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP). By comparing diagnostic subgroups to the corresponding reference group of the AASP, we detected a general pattern of sensory processing, indicating elevated levels of low registration, sensory sensitivity and sensory avoiding and lowered sensory seeking behavior in patients with different types of psychiatric disorders. The majority of effect sizes were large to very large. In conclusion, sensory processing difficulties can be considered as a non-specific transdiagnostic phenotype associated with a broad spectrum of psychiatric conditions. Further research into the relevance and role of sensory processing difficulties in psychiatric disorders may improve long-term prognosis and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank van den Boogert
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Research, Transfore, 7416 SB, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Katharina Klein
- Department of Research, Transfore, 7416 SB, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Pascalle Spaan
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Research, Transfore, 7416 SB, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Bram Sizoo
- Center for Developmental Disorders, Dimence Institute for Mental Health, 7416 SB, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Yvonne H A Bouman
- Department of Research, Transfore, 7416 SB, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Witte J G Hoogendijk
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Sabine J Roza
- Department of Psychiatry, Erasmus University Medical Center, 3015 GD, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Netherlands Institute for Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology, 3511 EW, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
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Zhao HC, Lv R, Zhang GY, He LM, Cai XT, Sun Q, Yan CY, Bao XY, Lv XY, Fu B. Alterations of Prefrontal-Posterior Information Processing Patterns in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Front Neurosci 2022; 15:768219. [PMID: 35173572 PMCID: PMC8841879 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.768219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a heterogeneous disorder characterized by different levels of repetitive and stereotypic behavior as well as deficits in social interaction and communication. In this current study, we explored the changes in cerebral neural activities in ASD. The purpose of this study is to investigate whether there exists a dysfunction of interactive information processing between the prefrontal cortex and posterior brain regions in ASD. We investigated the atypical connectivity and information flow between the prefrontal cortex and posterior brain regions in ASD utilizing the entropy connectivity (a kind of directional connectivity) method. Eighty-nine patients with ASD and 94 typical developing (TD) teenagers participated in this study. Two-sample t-tests revealed weakened interactive entropy connectivity between the prefrontal cortex and posterior brain regions. This result indicates that there exists interactive prefrontal-posterior underconnectivity in ASD, and this disorder might lead to less prior knowledge being used and updated. Our proposals highlighted that aforementioned atypical change might accelerate the deoptimization of brain networks in ASD.
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Patterson G, Cummings KK, Jung J, Okada NJ, Tottenham N, Bookheimer SY, Dapretto M, Green SA. Effects of sensory distraction and salience priming on emotion identification in autism: an fMRI study. J Neurodev Disord 2021; 13:42. [PMID: 34556059 PMCID: PMC8461948 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-021-09391-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Social interaction often occurs in noisy environments with many extraneous sensory stimuli. This is especially relevant for youth with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who commonly experience sensory over-responsivity (SOR) in addition to social challenges. However, the relationship between SOR and social difficulties is still poorly understood and thus rarely addressed in interventions. This study investigated the effect of auditory sensory distracters on neural processing of emotion identification in youth with ASD and the effects of increasing attention to social cues by priming participants with their own emotional faces. Methods While undergoing functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 30 youth with ASD and 24 typically developing (TD) age-matched controls (ages 8–17 years) identified faces as happy or angry with and without simultaneously hearing aversive environmental noises. Halfway through the task, participants also viewed videos of their own emotional faces. The relationship between parent-rated auditory SOR and brain responses during the task was also examined. Results Despite showing comparable behavioral performance on the task, ASD and TD youth demonstrated distinct patterns of neural activity. Compared to TD, ASD youth showed greater increases in amygdala, insula, and primary sensory regions when identifying emotions with noises compared to no sounds. After viewing videos of their own emotion faces, ASD youth showed greater increases in medial prefrontal cortex activation compared to TD youth. Within ASD youth, lower SOR was associated with reduced increased activity in subcortical regions after the prime and greater increased activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex after the prime, particularly in trials with noises. Conclusions The results suggest that the sensory environment plays an important role in how ASD youth process social information. Additionally, we demonstrated that increasing attention to relevant social cues helps ASD youth engage frontal regions involved in higher-order social cognition, a mechanism that could be targeted in interventions. Importantly, the effect of the intervention may depend on individual differences in SOR, supporting the importance of pre-screening youth for sensory challenges prior to social interventions. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s11689-021-09391-0.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kaitlin K Cummings
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA.,Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, USA
| | - Jiwon Jung
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Nana J Okada
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA.,Havard Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Nim Tottenham
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | - Susan Y Bookheimer
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA
| | - Mirella Dapretto
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA.,Ahmanson-Lovelace Brain Mapping Center, 660 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Shulamite A Green
- Jane and Terry Semel Institute of Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, USA. .,Ahmanson-Lovelace Brain Mapping Center, 660 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
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