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Kløve M, Christensen RS, Nielsen IG, Sommer S, Jørgensen MRV, Dippel AC, Iversen BB. Zr 4+ solution structures from pair distribution function analysis. Chem Sci 2022; 13:12883-12891. [PMID: 36519061 PMCID: PMC9645415 DOI: 10.1039/d2sc04522b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 08/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The structures of metal ions in solution constitute essential information for obtaining chemical insight spanning from catalytic reaction mechanisms to formation of functional nanomaterials. Here, we explore Zr4+ solution structures using X-ray pair distribution function (PDF) analysis across pH (0-14), concentrations (0.1-1.5 M), solvents (water, methanol, ethanol, acetonitrile) and metal sources (ZrCl4, ZrOCl2·8H2O, ZrO(NO3)2·xH2O). In water, [Zr4(OH)8(OH2)16]8+-tetramers are predominant, while non-aqueous solvents contain monomeric complexes. The PDF analysis also reveals second sphere coordination of chloride counter ions to the aqueous tetramers. The results are reproducible across data measured at three different beamlines at the PETRA-III and MAX IV synchrotron light sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magnus Kløve
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Rasmus Stubkjær Christensen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Ida Gjerlevsen Nielsen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Sanna Sommer
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
| | - Mads Ry Vogel Jørgensen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
- MAX IV Laboratory, Lund University Fotongatan 2 225 94 Lund Sweden
| | | | - Bo Brummerstedt Iversen
- Center for Integrated Materials Research, Department of Chemistry, Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University Langelandsgade 140 8000 Aarhus C Denmark
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2
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Terrill NJ, Dent AJ, Dobson B, Beale AM, Allen L, Bras W. Past, present and future-sample environments for materials research studies in scattering and spectroscopy; a UK perspective. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2021; 33:483002. [PMID: 34479225 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/ac2389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Small angle x-ray scattering and x-ray absorption fine structure are two techniques that have been employed at synchrotron sources ever since their inception. Over the course of the development of the techniques, the introduction of sample environments for added value experiments has grown dramatically. This article reviews past successes, current developments and an exploration of future possibilities for these two x-ray techniques with an emphasis on the developments in the United Kingdom between 1980-2020.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew J Dent
- Diamond Light Source, Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Barry Dobson
- Sagentia Ltd, Harston Mill, Harston Mill, CB22 7GG, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew M Beale
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London, WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom
- The Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa Allen
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, 20 Gordon Street, London, WC1H 0AJ, United Kingdom
- The Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire, OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
| | - Wim Bras
- Chemical Sciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, One Bethel Valley Road TN 37831, United States of America
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3
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Christensen RS, Kløve M, Roelsgaard M, Sommer S, Iversen BB. Unravelling the complex formation mechanism of HfO 2 nanocrystals using in situ pair distribution function analysis. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:12711-12719. [PMID: 34477621 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr03044b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Hafnia, HfO2, which is a wide band gap semiconducting oxide, is much less studied than the chemically similar zirconia (ZrO2). Here, we study the formation of hafnia nanocrystals from hafnium tetrachloride in methanol under solvothermal conditions (248 bar, 225-450 °C) using complementary in situ powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) and Pair Distribution Function (PDF) analysis. The main structural motif of the precursor solution (HfCl4 dissolved in methanol) is a Hf oxide trimer with very similar local structure to that of m-HfO2. Different measurements on precursor solutions show large intensity variation for the Hf-Cl correlations signifying different extents of HCl elimation. A few seconds of heating lead to a correlation appearing at 3.9 Å corresponding to corner-sharing Hf-polyhedra in a disordered solid matrix. During the next minutes (depending on temperature) the disordered structure rearranges and the nearest neighbour Hf-Hf distance contracts while the Hf-O coordination number increases. After approximately 90 seconds (at T = 250 °C) the structural rearrangement terminates and 1-2 nm nanocrystals of m-HfO2 nucleate. Initially the m-HfO2 nanocrystals have significant disorder as reflected in large Hf atomic displacement parameter (ADP) values, but as the nanocrystals grow to 5-6 nm in size during extended heating, the Hf ADPs decrease toward the values obtained for ordered bulk structures. The nanocrystal growth is not well modelled by the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami expression reflecting that multiple complex chemical processes occur during this highly nonclassical nanocrystal formation under solvothermal conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasmus S Christensen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNano, Aarhus University, Denmark.
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4
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Estevenon P, Causse J, Szenknect S, Welcomme E, Mesbah A, Moisy P, Poinssot C, Dacheux N. In situ study of the synthesis of thorite (ThSiO 4) under environmental representative conditions. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:11512-11521. [PMID: 32840279 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt01790f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Thorite, (ThSiO4) with a zircon type structure, is one of the most abundant natural sources of thorium on Earth. Generally, actinides are known to form nanoparticles in silicate medium, though no direct link between those colloids and the crystalline form of thorite was evidenced until now. Here we show the formation of thorite from colloids and nanocrystalline structures under experimental conditions close to environmental pH and temperature. Through in situ small and wide angle X-ray scattering (SWAXS) measurements, colloids with a few nanometers in size were first evidenced at a low reaction time. These colloids have elongated shapes and finally tend to aggregate after their size has reached 10 nm. Once aggregated, the system goes through a maturation step, ending with the emergence of nanocrystallites as thorite zircon structures. This maturation step is longer when the reaction temperature is decreased which highlights the kinetic considerations. These results have potential implications on the paragenesis of Th mineral deposits and also in the behaviour of Th and, by analogy, tetravalent actinides in the environment. The significant characteristics of this work are that Th-silicate colloids were demonstrated at low temperatures and a near neutral pH with long-term stability and a morphology in favor of high mobility in groundwater. If these species are formed in more diluted media, this could be problematic owing to the spreading of Th and, by analogy, other tetravalent actinides in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Estevenon
- ICSM, Univ Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France. and CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, France
| | - Jeremy Causse
- ICSM, Univ Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France.
| | | | | | - Adel Mesbah
- ICSM, Univ Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France.
| | - Philippe Moisy
- CEA, DES, ISEC, DMRC, Univ Montpellier, Marcoule, France
| | | | - Nicolas Dacheux
- ICSM, Univ Montpellier, CEA, CNRS, ENSCM, Bagnols-sur-Cèze, France.
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5
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Castillo-Blas C, Moreno JM, Romero-Muñiz I, Platero-Prats AE. Applications of pair distribution function analyses to the emerging field of non-ideal metal-organic framework materials. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:15577-15587. [PMID: 32510095 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr01673j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Pair distribution function, PDF, analyses are emerging as a powerful tool to characterize non-ideal metal-organic framework (MOF) materials with compromised ordering. Although originally envisaged as crystalline porous architectures, MOFs can incorporate defects in their structures through either chemistry or mechanical stress, resulting in materials with unpredicted novel properties. Indeed, a wide variety of current non-ideal MOFs have disorder in their structures to some extent, thereby often lacking crystals. Typically, PDF experiments are performed using high-energy synchrotron X-rays or neutrons to achieve a superior high atomic resolution in short times. The PDF technique analyses both Bragg and diffuse scattering signals simultaneously, without being restricted to crystalline materials. This characteristic makes PDF analyses a powerful probe to address the structural characterization of non-ideal MOF materials both at the local and intermediate range scales, including under in situ conditions relevant to MOF synthesis, activation and catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia Castillo-Blas
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049, Madrid, Spain.
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6
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Cordova DLM, Johnson DC. Synthesis of Metastable Inorganic Solids with Extended Structures. Chemphyschem 2020; 21:1345-1368. [PMID: 32346904 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202000199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The number of known inorganic compounds is dramatically less than predicted due to synthetic challenges, which often constrains products to only the thermodynamically most stable compounds. Consequently, a mechanism-based approach to inorganic solids with designed structures is the holy grail of solid state synthesis. This article discusses a number of synthetic approaches using the concept of an energy landscape, which describes the complex relationship between the energy of different atomic configurations as a function of a variety of parameters such as initial structure, temperature, pressure, and composition. Nucleation limited synthesis approaches with high diffusion rates are contrasted with diffusion limited synthesis approaches. One challenge to the synthesis of new compounds is the inability to accurately predict what structures might be local free energy minima in the free energy landscape. Approaches to this challenge include predicting potentially stable compounds thorough the use of structural homologies and/or theoretical calculations. A second challenge to the synthesis of metastable inorganic solids is developing approaches to move across the energy landscape to a desired local free energy minimum while avoiding deeper free energy minima, such as stable binary compounds, as reaction intermediates. An approach using amorphous intermediates is presented, where local composition can be used to prepare metastable compounds. Designed nanoarchitecture built into a precursor can be preserved at low reaction temperatures and used to direct the reaction to specific structural homologs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitri Leo M Cordova
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oregon, 1253 University of Oregon Eugene, Oregon, 97403, USA
| | - David C Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oregon, 1253 University of Oregon Eugene, Oregon, 97403, USA
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7
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Embrechts H, Hartmann M, Peukert W, Distaso M. In Situ Monitoring of Particle Formation with Spectroscopic and Analytical Techniques Under Solvothermal Conditions. Chem Eng Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.201900520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Heidemarie Embrechts
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInstitute of Particle Technology Cauerstrasse 4 91058 Erlangen Germany
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInterdisciplinary Center for Functional Particle Systems Haberstrasse 9a 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Martin Hartmann
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInterdisciplinary Center for Functional Particle Systems Haberstrasse 9a 91058 Erlangen Germany
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergErlangen Center for Interface Research and Catalysis (ECRC) Egerlandstrasse 3 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Wolfgang Peukert
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInstitute of Particle Technology Cauerstrasse 4 91058 Erlangen Germany
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInterdisciplinary Center for Functional Particle Systems Haberstrasse 9a 91058 Erlangen Germany
| | - Monica Distaso
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInstitute of Particle Technology Cauerstrasse 4 91058 Erlangen Germany
- FAU Erlangen-NurembergInterdisciplinary Center for Functional Particle Systems Haberstrasse 9a 91058 Erlangen Germany
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8
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Pienack N, Lindenberg P, Doungmo G, Heidenreich N, Bertram F, Etter M, Wharmby MT, Terraschke H. In situ Monitoring of the Formation of [Bis(acetylacetonato)manganese(II)] Complexes. Z Anorg Allg Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/zaac.201800392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Pienack
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel; Max-Eyth-Str. 2 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Patric Lindenberg
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel; Max-Eyth-Str. 2 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Giscard Doungmo
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel; Max-Eyth-Str. 2 24118 Kiel Germany
| | - Niclas Heidenreich
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel; Max-Eyth-Str. 2 24118 Kiel Germany
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY); Notkestr. 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Florian Bertram
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY); Notkestr. 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Martin Etter
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY); Notkestr. 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Michael T. Wharmby
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY); Notkestr. 85 22607 Hamburg Germany
| | - Huayna Terraschke
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie; Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel; Max-Eyth-Str. 2 24118 Kiel Germany
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9
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Aymonier C, Philippot G, Erriguible A, Marre S. Playing with chemistry in supercritical solvents and the associated technologies for advanced materials by design. J Supercrit Fluids 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2017.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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10
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Liu X, Wen X, Hoffmann R. Surface Activation of Transition Metal Nanoparticles for Heterogeneous Catalysis: What We Can Learn from Molecular Dynamics. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b04468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xingchen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Taiyuan 030001, China
- National Energy Center for Coal to Liquids, Synfuels CHINA Co., Ltd, Huairou District, Beijing 101400, China
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Baker Laboratory, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Xiaodong Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion, Institute of Coal Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Taiyuan 030001, China
- National Energy Center for Coal to Liquids, Synfuels CHINA Co., Ltd, Huairou District, Beijing 101400, China
| | - Roald Hoffmann
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Baker Laboratory, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
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11
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Deshmukh R, Niederberger M. Mechanistic Aspects in the Formation, Growth and Surface Functionalization of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Organic Solvents. Chemistry 2017; 23:8542-8570. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201605957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rupali Deshmukh
- Laboratory for Multifunctional Materials, Department of Materials; ETH Zürich; Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Markus Niederberger
- Laboratory for Multifunctional Materials, Department of Materials; ETH Zürich; Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5 8093 Zürich Switzerland
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12
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In Situ Studies on Phase Transitions of Tris(acetylacetonato)-Aluminum(III) Al(acac)3. CRYSTALS 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/cryst6120157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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13
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Zobel M, Windmüller A, Schmidt EM, Götz K, Milek T, Zahn D, Kimber SAJ, Hudspeth JM, Neder RB. The evolution of crystalline ordering for ligand-ornamented zinc oxide nanoparticles. CrystEngComm 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ce02099a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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14
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15
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Terban MW, Johnson M, Di Michiel M, Billinge SJL. Detection and characterization of nanoparticles in suspension at low concentrations using the X-ray total scattering pair distribution function technique. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:5480-7. [PMID: 25732228 DOI: 10.1039/c4nr06486k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Difference atomic pair distribution function methods have been applied to detect and characterize nanoparticles suspended in a solvent at very dilute concentrations. We specifically consider nanoparticles of a pharmaceutical compound in aqueous solution using X-ray PDF methods, a challenging case due to the low atomic number of the nanoparticle species. The nanoparticles were unambiguously detected at the level of 0.25 wt%. Even at these low concentrations the signals were highly reproducible, allowing for reliable detection and quantitative analysis of the nanoparticle structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell W Terban
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
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16
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Bras W, Koizumi S, Terrill NJ. Beyond simple small-angle X-ray scattering: developments in online complementary techniques and sample environments. IUCRJ 2014; 1:478-91. [PMID: 25485128 PMCID: PMC4224466 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252514019198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS, WAXS) are standard tools in materials research. The simultaneous measurement of SAXS and WAXS data in time-resolved studies has gained popularity due to the complementary information obtained. Furthermore, the combination of these data with non X-ray based techniques, via either simultaneous or independent measurements, has advanced understanding of the driving forces that lead to the structures and morphologies of materials, which in turn give rise to their properties. The simultaneous measurement of different data regimes and types, using either X-rays or neutrons, and the desire to control parameters that initiate and control structural changes have led to greater demands on sample environments. Examples of developments in technique combinations and sample environment design are discussed, together with a brief speculation about promising future developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Bras
- Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), DUBBLE@ESRF, BP 220, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, Grenoble 38043, France
| | - Satoshi Koizumi
- College of Engineering, Ibaraki University, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0044, Japan
| | - Nicholas J Terrill
- Science Division, Diamond Light Source, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, Oxfordshire OX11 0DE, UK
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17
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Jensen KMØ, Andersen HL, Tyrsted C, Bøjesen ED, Dippel AC, Lock N, Billinge SJL, Iversen BB, Christensen M. Mechanisms for iron oxide formation under hydrothermal conditions: an in situ total scattering study. ACS NANO 2014; 8:10704-14. [PMID: 25256366 DOI: 10.1021/nn5044096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The formation and growth of maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles from ammonium iron(III) citrate solutions (C(6)O(7)H(6) · xFe(3+) · yNH(4)) in hydrothermal synthesis conditions have been studied by in situ total scattering. The local structure of the precursor in solution is similar to that of the crystalline coordination polymer [Fe(H(2)cit(H2O)](n), where corner-sharing [FeO(6)] octahedra are linked by citrate. As hydrothermal treatment of the solution is initiated, clusters of edge-sharing [FeO(6)] units form (with extent of the structural order <5 Å). Tetrahedrally coordinated iron subsequently appears, and as the synthesis continues, the clusters slowly assemble into crystalline maghemite, giving rise to clear Bragg peaks after 90 s at 320 °C. The primary transformation from amorphous clusters to nanocrystallites takes place by condensation of the clusters along the corner-sharing tetrahedral iron units. The crystallization process is related to large changes in the local structure as the interatomic distances in the clusters change dramatically with cluster growth. The local atomic structure is size dependent, and particles smaller than 6 nm are highly disordered. The final crystallite size (<10 nm) is dependent on both synthesis temperature and precursor concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten M Ø Jensen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University , DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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18
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Birgisson S, Jensen KMØ, Christiansen TL, von Bülow JF, Iversen BB. In situ powder X-ray diffraction study of the hydro-thermal formation of LiMn2O4nanocrystallites. Dalton Trans 2014; 43:15075-84. [DOI: 10.1039/c4dt01307g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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19
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Jensen KMØ, Tyrsted C, Bremholm M, Iversen BB. In situ studies of solvothermal synthesis of energy materials. CHEMSUSCHEM 2014; 7:1594-1611. [PMID: 24599741 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201301042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 10/20/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Solvothermal and hydrothermal synthesis, that is, synthesis taking place in a solvent at elevated temperature and pressure, is a powerful technique for the production of advanced energy materials as it is versatile, cheap, and environmentally friendly. However, the fundamental reaction mechanisms dictating particle formation and growth under solvothermal conditions are not well understood. In order to produce tailor-made materials with specific properties for advanced energy technologies, it is essential to obtain an improved understanding of these processes and, in this context, in situ studies are an important tool as they provide real time information on the reactions taking place. Here, we present a review of the use of powder diffraction and total scattering methods for in situ studies of synthesis taking place under solvothermal and hydrothermal conditions. The experimental setups used for in situ X-ray and neutron studies are presented, and methods of data analysis are described. Special attention is given to the methods used to extract structural information from the data, for example, Rietveld refinement, whole powder pattern modelling and pair distribution function analysis. Examples of in situ studies are presented to illustrate the types of chemical insight that can be obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten M Ø Jensen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, 8000 Aarhus C (Denmark) www.cmc.chem.au.dk
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20
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Tyrsted C, Lock N, Jensen KMØ, Christensen M, Bøjesen ED, Emerich H, Vaughan G, Billinge SJL, Iversen BB. Evolution of atomic structure during nanoparticle formation. IUCRJ 2014; 1:165-71. [PMID: 25075335 PMCID: PMC4086431 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252514006538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanism of nanoparticle formation during synthesis is a key prerequisite for the rational design and engineering of desirable materials properties, yet remains elusive due to the difficulty of studying structures at the nanoscale under real conditions. Here, the first comprehensive structural description of the formation of a nanoparticle, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), all the way from its ionic constituents in solution to the final crystal, is presented. The transformation is a complicated multi-step sequence of atomic reorganizations as the material follows the reaction pathway towards the equilibrium product. Prior to nanoparticle nucleation, reagents reorganize into polymeric species whose structure is incompatible with the final product. Instead of direct nucleation of clusters into the final product lattice, a highly disordered intermediate precipitate forms with a local bonding environment similar to the product yet lacking the correct topology. During maturation, bond reforming occurs by nucleation and growth of distinct domains within the amorphous intermediary. The present study moves beyond kinetic modeling by providing detailed real-time structural insight, and it is demonstrated that YSZ nanoparticle formation and growth is a more complex chemical process than accounted for in conventional models. This level of mechanistic understanding of the nanoparticle formation is the first step towards more rational control over nanoparticle synthesis through control of both solution precursors and reaction intermediaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoffer Tyrsted
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
| | - Nina Lock
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
- Faculty of Chemistry, Georg-August-Universitat Gottingen, Tammannstrasse 4, D-37077 Gottingen, Germany
| | - Kirsten M. Ø. Jensen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Mogens Christensen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
| | - Espen D. Bøjesen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
| | - Hermann Emerich
- SNBL, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 6 rue Horowitz, F-38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Gavin Vaughan
- ID11, European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, 6 rue Horowitz, F-38043 Grenoble, France
| | - Simon J. L. Billinge
- Department of Applied Physics and Applied Mathematics, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
- Condensed Matter Physics and Materials Science Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York, NY 11973, USA
| | - Bo B. Iversen
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry, and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, Aarhus, DK-8000, Denmark
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21
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Rostgaard Eltzholtz J, Tyrsted C, Ørnsbjerg Jensen KM, Bremholm M, Christensen M, Becker-Christensen J, Brummerstedt Iversen B. Pulsed supercritical synthesis of anatase TiO₂ nanoparticles in a water-isopropanol mixture studied by in situ powder X-ray diffraction. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:2372-2378. [PMID: 23396539 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr33127j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A new step in supercritical nanoparticle synthesis, the pulsed supercritical synthesis reactor, is investigated in situ using synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD) to understand the formation of nanoparticles in real time. This eliminates the common problem of transferring information gained during in situ studies to subsequent laboratory reactor conditions. As a proof of principle, anatase titania nanoparticles were synthesized in a 50/50 mixture of water and isopropanol near and above the critical point of water (P = 250 bar, T = 300, 350, 400, 450, 500 and 550 °C). The evolution of the reaction product was followed by sequentially recording PXRD patterns with a time resolution of less than two seconds. The crystallite size of titania is found to depend on both temperature and residence time, and increasing either parameter leads to larger crystallites. A simple adjustment of either temperature or residence time provides a direct method for gram scale production of anatase nanoparticles of average crystallite sizes between 7 and 35 nm, thus giving the option of synthesizing tailor-made nanoparticles. Modeling of the in situ growth curves using an Avrami growth model gave an activation energy of 66(19) kJ mol(-1) for the initial crystallization. The in situ PXRD data also provide direct information about the size dependent macrostrain in the nanoparticles and with decreasing crystallite size the unit cell contracts, especially along the c-direction. This agrees well with previous ex situ results obtained for hydrothermal synthesis of titania nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakob Rostgaard Eltzholtz
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Langelandsgade 140, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark
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22
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Nørby P, Jensen KMØ, Lock N, Christensen M, Iversen BB. In situ synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction study of formation and growth of yttrium and ytterbium aluminum garnet nanoparticles in sub- and supercritical water. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra41854e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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23
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Tyrsted C, Jensen KMØ, Bøjesen ED, Lock N, Christensen M, Billinge SJL, Brummerstedt Iversen B. Understanding the formation and evolution of ceria nanoparticles under hydrothermal conditions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:9030-3. [PMID: 22893454 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201204747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Supercritical growth: The formation and evolution of ceria nanoparticles during hydrothermal synthesis was investigated by in situ total scattering and powder diffraction. The nucleation of pristine crystalline ceria nanoparticles originated from previously unknown cerium dimer complexes. The nanoparticle growth was highly accelerated under supercritical conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoffer Tyrsted
- Center for Materials Crystallography, Department of Chemistry and iNANO, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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24
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Tyrsted C, Ørnsbjerg Jensen KM, Bøjesen ED, Lock N, Christensen M, Billinge SJL, Brummerstedt Iversen B. Understanding the Formation and Evolution of Ceria Nanoparticles Under Hydrothermal Conditions. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201204747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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