1
|
Veale R, Takahashi M. Pathways for Naturalistic Looking Behavior in Primate II. Superior Colliculus Integrates Parallel Top-down and Bottom-up Inputs. Neuroscience 2024; 545:86-110. [PMID: 38484836 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2024.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Volitional signals for gaze control are provided by multiple parallel pathways converging on the midbrain superior colliculus (SC), whose deeper layers output to the brainstem gaze circuits. In the first of two papers (Takahashi and Veale, 2023), we described the properties of gaze behavior of several species under both laboratory and natural conditions, as well as the current understanding of the brainstem and spinal cord circuits implementing gaze control in primate. In this paper, we review the parallel pathways by which sensory and task information reaches SC and how these sensory and task signals interact within SC's multilayered structure. This includes both bottom-up (world statistics) signals mediated by sensory cortex, association cortex, and subcortical structures, as well as top-down (goal and task) influences which arrive via either direct excitatory pathways from cerebral cortex, or via indirect basal ganglia relays resulting in inhibition or dis-inhibition as appropriate for alternative behaviors. Models of attention such as saliency maps serve as convenient frameworks to organize our understanding of both the separate computations of each neural pathway, as well as the interaction between the multiple parallel pathways influencing gaze. While the spatial interactions between gaze's neural pathways are relatively well understood, the temporal interactions between and within pathways will be an important area of future study, requiring both improved technical methods for measurement and improvement of our understanding of how temporal dynamics results in the observed spatiotemporal allocation of gaze.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Veale
- Department of Neurobiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Kyoto University, Japan
| | - Mayu Takahashi
- Department of Systems Neurophysiology, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yoshida A, Hikosaka O. Involvement of neurons in the non-human primate anterior striatum in proactive inhibition. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.24.591009. [PMID: 38712157 PMCID: PMC11071629 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.24.591009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Behaving as desired requires selecting the appropriate behavior and inhibiting the selection of inappropriate behavior. This inhibitory function involves multiple processes, such as reactive and proactive inhibition, instead of a single process. In this study, macaque monkeys were required to perform a task in which they had to sequentially select (accept) or refuse (reject) a choice. Neural activity was recorded from the anterior striatum, which is considered to be involved in behavioral inhibition, focusing on the distinction between proactive and reactive inhibitions. We identified neurons with significant activity changes during the rejection of bad objects. Cluster analysis revealed three distinct groups, of which one showed obviously increased activity during object rejection, suggesting its involvement in proactive inhibition. This activity pattern was consistent irrespective of the rejection method, indicating a role beyond mere saccadic suppression. Furthermore, minimal activity changes during the fixation task indicated that these neurons were not primarily involved in reactive inhibition. In conclusion, these findings suggest that the anterior striatum plays a crucial role in cognitive control and orchestrates goal-directed behavior through proactive inhibition, which may be critical in understanding the mechanisms of behavioral inhibition dysfunction that occur in patients with basal ganglia disease.
Collapse
|
3
|
Suzuki M, Pennartz CMA, Aru J. How deep is the brain? The shallow brain hypothesis. Nat Rev Neurosci 2023; 24:778-791. [PMID: 37891398 DOI: 10.1038/s41583-023-00756-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Deep learning and predictive coding architectures commonly assume that inference in neural networks is hierarchical. However, largely neglected in deep learning and predictive coding architectures is the neurobiological evidence that all hierarchical cortical areas, higher or lower, project to and receive signals directly from subcortical areas. Given these neuroanatomical facts, today's dominance of cortico-centric, hierarchical architectures in deep learning and predictive coding networks is highly questionable; such architectures are likely to be missing essential computational principles the brain uses. In this Perspective, we present the shallow brain hypothesis: hierarchical cortical processing is integrated with a massively parallel process to which subcortical areas substantially contribute. This shallow architecture exploits the computational capacity of cortical microcircuits and thalamo-cortical loops that are not included in typical hierarchical deep learning and predictive coding networks. We argue that the shallow brain architecture provides several critical benefits over deep hierarchical structures and a more complete depiction of how mammalian brains achieve fast and flexible computational capabilities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mototaka Suzuki
- Department of Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Cyriel M A Pennartz
- Department of Cognitive and Systems Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jaan Aru
- Institute of Computer Science, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Borra E, Rizzo M, Luppino G. Gradients of thalamic connectivity in the macaque lateral prefrontal cortex. Front Integr Neurosci 2023; 17:1239426. [PMID: 37908780 PMCID: PMC10613699 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2023.1239426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In the primate brain, the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPF) is a large, heterogeneous region critically involved in the cognitive control of behavior, consisting of several connectionally and functionally distinct areas. Studies in macaques provided evidence for distinctive patterns of cortical connectivity between architectonic areas located at different dorsoventral levels and for rostrocaudal gradients of parietal and frontal connections in the three main architectonic LPF areas: 46d, 46v, and 12r. In the present study, based on tracer injections placed at different dorsoventral and rostrocaudal cortical levels, we have examined the thalamic projections to the LPF to examine to what extent fine-grained connectional gradients of cortical connectivity are reflected in the topography of thalamo-LPF projections. The results showed mapping onto the nucleus medialis dorsalis (MD), by far the major source of thalamic input to the LPF, of rostral-to-caudal LPF zones, in which MD zones projecting to more caudal LPF sectors are located more rostral than those projecting to intermediate LPF sectors. Furthermore, the MD zones projecting to the rostral LPF sectors tended to be much more extensive in the rostrocaudal direction. One rostrolateral MD sector appeared to be a common source of projections to caudal prefrontal areas involved in the oculomotor frontal domain, a more caudal and ventral MD sector to a large extent of the ventral LPF, and middle and dorsal MD sectors to most of the dorsal LPF. Additional topographically organized projections to LPF areas originated from the nucleus pulvinaris medialis and projections from the nucleus anterior medialis selectively targeted more rostral sectors of LPF. Thus, the present data suggest that the topography of the MD-LPF projections does not adhere to simple topological rules, but is mainly organized according to functional criteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giuseppe Luppino
- Neuroscience Unit, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Yoshida A, Hikosaka O. Opposing functions of glutamatergic inputs between the globus pallidus external segment and substantia nigra pars reticulata. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.25.550377. [PMID: 37546868 PMCID: PMC10402021 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.25.550377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
The indirect pathway of the basal ganglia, including the subthalamic nucleus (STN) and globus pallidus external segment (GPe), is believed to play a crucial role in suppressing involuntary movements. However, recent evidence suggests the STN and GPe also facilitate voluntary movements. This study hypothesized that excitatory inputs from the STN to the GPe contribute to this facilitation, and that excitatory projections to the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr) are involved in the inhibition. To disrupt the STN-GPe or STN-SNr projections in monkeys during choice and fixation tasks, glutamate receptor inhibitors were injected into the GPe or SNr, which induced delayed saccade latencies toward good choices in the choice task (GPe) and caused frequent reflexive saccades to objects in the fixation task (SNr). Our findings suggest excitatory inputs to the GPe and SNr work in opposing manners, providing new insights that redefine our understanding of the functions of basal ganglia pathways.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Yoshida
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Okihide Hikosaka
- Laboratory of Sensorimotor Research, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kumral E, Çetin FE, Özdemir HN. A Neuropsychiatric and Neuroimaging Study of Unilateral and Bilateral Striatal Ischemic Lesions. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2023; 35:48-58. [PMID: 35872616 DOI: 10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21030083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Neuropsychiatric disorders after striatal territory stroke have not been studied systematically. The investigators aimed to study the spectrum of cognitive and behavioral disorders following striatal infarcts. METHODS Different aspects of cognitive functions, including executive, frontal lobe, memory, visuospatial, language, and semantic processing, were assessed among patients with striatal infarct. Structural MRI data sets were obtained 3 months after stroke to delineate affected territories of the striatum. MRIcroGL software was used to acquire multiple layers of images, generate volume renderings, and draw volumes of interest. To determine the brain locus most frequently affected in patients with distinct cognitive disorders, ischemic area distributions in patients with cognitive dysfunction versus those without cognitive impairment were contrasted. RESULTS Among 60 patients in this study, six different striatal infarction types were significantly associated with seven different cognitive categories (p<0.001). Unilateral caudate lesion was characterized by attention, planning, and executive disorders (38%), and unilateral lentiform infarct was characterized by executive (36%) and frontal (36%) dysfunctions. Bilateral caudate infarcts caused impairments in frontal and executive functions (75%), as well as in autobiographical (50%) and episodic (50%) memory. In those with bilateral caudate plus lentiform infarcts, all components of frontal and executive functions were dramatically impaired. The anteromedial striatum was affected more frequently in patients with language impairment compared with patients with other types of cognitive dysfunction (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Following striatal stroke, a wide range of frontal-like cognitive impairments occurred, along with impaired working memory, declarative memory, executive function, speech fluency, and motor function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emre Kumral
- Neurology Department, Medical School Hospital, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey (Kumral, Özdemir); Psychology Department, Uskudar University, Istanbul, Turkey (Bayam)
| | - Fatma Ece Çetin
- Neurology Department, Medical School Hospital, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey (Kumral, Özdemir); Psychology Department, Uskudar University, Istanbul, Turkey (Bayam)
| | - Hüseyin Nezih Özdemir
- Neurology Department, Medical School Hospital, Ege University, İzmir, Turkey (Kumral, Özdemir); Psychology Department, Uskudar University, Istanbul, Turkey (Bayam)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Tomasino B, Maggioni E, Bonivento C, Nobile M, D'Agostini S, Arrigoni F, Fabbro F, Brambilla P. Effects of age and gender on neural correlates of emotion imagery. Hum Brain Mapp 2022; 43:4116-4127. [PMID: 35548890 PMCID: PMC9374878 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.25906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Mental imagery is part of people's own internal processing and plays an important role in everyday life, cognition and pathology. The neural network supporting mental imagery is bottom‐up modulated by the imagery content. Here, we examined the complex associations of gender and age with the neural mechanisms underlying emotion imagery. We assessed the brain circuits involved in emotion mental imagery (vs. action imagery), controlled by a letter detection task on the same stimuli, chosen to ensure attention to the stimuli and to discourage imagery, in 91 men and women aged 14–65 years using fMRI. In women, compared with men, emotion imagery significantly increased activation within the right putamen, which is involved in emotional processing. Increasing age, significantly decreased mental imagery‐related activation in the left insula and cingulate cortex, areas involved in awareness of ones' internal states, and it significantly decreased emotion verbs‐related activation in the left putamen, which is part of the limbic system. This finding suggests a top‐down mechanism by which gender and age, in interaction with bottom‐up effect of type of stimulus, or directly, can modulate the brain mechanisms underlying mental imagery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Tomasino
- Scientific Institute IRCCS "Eugenio Medea", Polo FVG, Pasian di Prato, Italy
| | - Eleonora Maggioni
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy
| | - Carolina Bonivento
- Scientific Institute IRCCS "Eugenio Medea", Polo FVG, Pasian di Prato, Italy
| | - Maria Nobile
- Scientific Institute IRCCS "Eugenio Medea", Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Serena D'Agostini
- SOC Neuroradiologia, Azienda Sanitaria Universitaria Friuli Centrale, ASU FC, Udine, Italy
| | - Filippo Arrigoni
- Scientific Institute IRCCS "Eugenio Medea", Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Franco Fabbro
- Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, DILL, University of Udine, Udine, Italy
| | - Paolo Brambilla
- Department of Neurosciences and Mental Health, Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Milan, Italy.,Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bullock DN, Hayday EA, Grier MD, Tang W, Pestilli F, Heilbronner SR. A taxonomy of the brain's white matter: twenty-one major tracts for the 21st century. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:4524-4548. [PMID: 35169827 PMCID: PMC9574243 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
The functional and computational properties of brain areas are determined, in large part, by their connectivity profiles. Advances in neuroimaging and network neuroscience allow us to characterize the human brain noninvasively, but a comprehensive understanding of the human brain demands an account of the anatomy of brain connections. Long-range anatomical connections are instantiated by white matter, which itself is organized into tracts. These tracts are often disrupted by central nervous system disorders, and they can be targeted by neuromodulatory interventions, such as deep brain stimulation. Here, we characterized the connections, morphology, traversal, and functions of the major white matter tracts in the brain. There are major discrepancies across different accounts of white matter tract anatomy, hindering our attempts to accurately map the connectivity of the human brain. However, we are often able to clarify the source(s) of these discrepancies through careful consideration of both histological tract-tracing and diffusion-weighted tractography studies. In combination, the advantages and disadvantages of each method permit novel insights into brain connectivity. Ultimately, our synthesis provides an essential reference for neuroscientists and clinicians interested in brain connectivity and anatomy, allowing for the study of the association of white matter's properties with behavior, development, and disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel N Bullock
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Program in Neuroscience, Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA,Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Elena A Hayday
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Mark D Grier
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | | | | | - Sarah R Heilbronner
- Address correspondence to Sarah R. Heilbronner, Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, 2-164 Jackson Hall, 321 Church St SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Preuss TM, Wise SP. Evolution of prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:3-19. [PMID: 34363014 PMCID: PMC8617185 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01076-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Subdivisions of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) evolved at different times. Agranular parts of the PFC emerged in early mammals, and rodents, primates, and other modern mammals share them by inheritance. These are limbic areas and include the agranular orbital cortex and agranular medial frontal cortex (areas 24, 32, and 25). Rodent research provides valuable insights into the structure, functions, and development of these shared areas, but it contributes less to parts of the PFC that are specific to primates, namely, the granular, isocortical PFC that dominates the frontal lobe in humans. The first granular PFC areas evolved either in early primates or in the last common ancestor of primates and tree shrews. Additional granular PFC areas emerged in the primate stem lineage, as represented by modern strepsirrhines. Other granular PFC areas evolved in simians, the group that includes apes, humans, and monkeys. In general, PFC accreted new areas along a roughly posterior to anterior trajectory during primate evolution. A major expansion of the granular PFC occurred in humans in concert with other association areas, with modifications of corticocortical connectivity and gene expression, although current evidence does not support the addition of a large number of new, human-specific PFC areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Todd M Preuss
- Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30329, USA.
| | - Steven P Wise
- Olschefskie Institute for the Neurobiology of Knowledge, Bethesda, MD, 20814, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Lehmann SJ, Corneil BD. Completing the puzzle: Why studies in non-human primates are needed to better understand the effects of non-invasive brain stimulation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 132:1074-1085. [PMID: 34742722 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.10.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Brain stimulation is a core method in neuroscience. Numerous non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques are currently in use in basic and clinical research, and recent advances promise the ability to non-invasively access deep brain structures. While encouraging, there is a surprising gap in our understanding of precisely how NIBS perturbs neural activity throughout an interconnected network, and how such perturbed neural activity ultimately links to behaviour. In this review, we will consider why non-human primate (NHP) models of NIBS are ideally situated to address this gap in knowledge, and why the oculomotor network that moves our line of sight offers a particularly valuable platform in which to empirically test hypothesis regarding NIBS-induced changes in brain and behaviour. NHP models of NIBS will enable investigation of the complex, dynamic effects of brain stimulation across multiple hierarchically interconnected brain areas, networks, and effectors. By establishing such links between brain and behavioural output, work in NHPs can help optimize experimental and therapeutic approaches, improve NIBS efficacy, and reduce side-effects of NIBS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian J Lehmann
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada.
| | - Brian D Corneil
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada; Department of Psychology, Western University, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada; Robarts Research Institute, London, Ontario, N6A 5B7, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Tehovnik EJ, Froudarakis E, Scala F, Smirnakis SM, Patel SS, Tolias AS. Visuomotor control in mice and primates. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 130:185-200. [PMID: 34416241 PMCID: PMC10508359 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Revised: 07/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
We conduct a comparative evaluation of the visual systems from the retina to the muscles of the mouse and the macaque monkey noting the differences and similarities between these two species. The topics covered include (1) visual-field overlap, (2) visual spatial resolution, (3) V1 cortical point-image [i.e., V1 tissue dedicated to analyzing a unit receptive field], (4) object versus motion encoding, (5) oculomotor range, (6) eye, head, and body movement coordination, and (7) neocortical and cerebellar function. We also discuss blindsight in rodents and primates which provides insights on how the neocortex mediates conscious vision in these species. This review is timely because the field of visuomotor neurophysiology is expanding beyond the macaque monkey to include the mouse; there is therefore a need for a comparative analysis between these two species on how the brain generates visuomotor responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E J Tehovnik
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - E Froudarakis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | - F Scala
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - S M Smirnakis
- Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Jamaica Plain Veterans Administration Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - S S Patel
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - A S Tolias
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Center for Neuroscience and Artificial Intelligence, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Abstract
Blindsight is the residual visuo-motor ability without subjective awareness observed after lesions of the primary visual cortex (V1). Various visual functions are retained, however, instrumental visual associative learning remains to be investigated. Here we examined the secondary reinforcing properties of visual cues presented to the hemianopic field of macaque monkeys with unilateral V1 lesions. Our aim was to test the potential role of visual pathways bypassing V1 in reinforcing visual instrumental learning. When learning the location of a hidden area in an oculomotor search task, conditioned visual cues presented to the lesion-affected hemifield operated as an effective secondary reinforcer. We noted that not only the hidden area location, but also the vector of the saccade entering the target area was reinforced. Importantly, when the visual reinforcement signal was presented in the lesion-affected field, the monkeys continued searching, as opposed to stopping when the cue was presented in the intact field. This suggests the monkeys were less confident that the target location had been discovered when the reinforcement cue was presented in the affected field. These results indicate that the visual signals mediated by the residual visual pathways after V1 lesions can access fundamental reinforcement mechanisms but with impaired visual awareness.
Collapse
|
13
|
Phillips JM, Kambi NA, Redinbaugh MJ, Mohanta S, Saalmann YB. Disentangling the influences of multiple thalamic nuclei on prefrontal cortex and cognitive control. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 128:487-510. [PMID: 34216654 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.06.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC) has a complex relationship with the thalamus, involving many nuclei which occupy predominantly medial zones along its anterior-to-posterior extent. Thalamocortical neurons in most of these nuclei are modulated by the affective and cognitive signals which funnel through the basal ganglia. We review how PFC-connected thalamic nuclei likely contribute to all aspects of cognitive control: from the processing of information on internal states and goals, facilitating its interactions with mnemonic information and learned values of stimuli and actions, to their influence on high-level cognitive processes, attentional allocation and goal-directed behavior. This includes contributions to transformations such as rule-to-choice (parvocellular mediodorsal nucleus), value-to-choice (magnocellular mediodorsal nucleus), mnemonic-to-choice (anteromedial nucleus) and sensory-to-choice (medial pulvinar). Common mechanisms appear to be thalamic modulation of cortical gain and cortico-cortical functional connectivity. The anatomy also implies a unique role for medial PFC in modulating processing in thalamocortical circuits involving other orbital and lateral PFC regions. We further discuss how cortico-basal ganglia circuits may provide a mechanism through which PFC controls cortico-cortical functional connectivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica M Phillips
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 W Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706, United States.
| | - Niranjan A Kambi
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 W Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Michelle J Redinbaugh
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 W Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Sounak Mohanta
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 W Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706, United States
| | - Yuri B Saalmann
- Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 W Johnson St., Madison, WI 53706, United States; Wisconsin National Primate Research Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1202 Capitol Ct., Madison, WI 53715, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Borra E, Luppino G. Comparative anatomy of the macaque and the human frontal oculomotor domain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 126:43-56. [PMID: 33737106 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In non-human primates, at the junction of the prefrontal with the premotor cortex, there is a sector designated as frontal eye field (FEF), involved in controlling oculomotor behavior and spatial attention. Evidence for at least two FEFs in humans is at the basis of the still open issue of the possible homologies between the macaque and the human frontal oculomotor system. In this review article we address this issue suggesting a new view solidly grounded on evidence from the last decade showing that, in macaques, the FEF is at the core of an oculomotor domain in which several distinct areas, including areas 45A and 45B, provide the substrate for parallel processing of different aspects of oculomotor behavior. Based on comparative considerations, we will propose a correspondence between some of the macaque and the human oculomotor fields, thus suggesting sharing of neural substrate for oculomotor control, gaze processing, and orienting attention in space. Accordingly, this article could contribute to settle some aspects of the so-called "enigma" of the human FEF anatomy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Borra
- University of Parma, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Neuroscience Unit, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Luppino
- University of Parma, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Neuroscience Unit, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Hiasat JG, Nischal KK. Traumatic Brain Injury in Children: Sport-related Concussions in Children. J Binocul Vis Ocul Motil 2020; 70:128-133. [PMID: 33275076 DOI: 10.1080/2576117x.2020.1826289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Concussion is a worldwide health concern among children and adolescents. Over the decades concussion has been gradually better recognized as an entity that accounts for a significant disability post head trauma in patients. Patients present with cognitive, somatic and oculo-vestibular symptoms that can be incapacitating. Most concussion symptoms are transient and resolve within 1-2 weeks but can persist for years. Concussion pathophysiology is complex and may not be fully understood but it involves numerous mechanisms including cellular metabolic derangements, cerebral blood inflow, and axonal disruption. With no associated objective biomarkers or visible pathologic brain changes, diagnosis of concussion can be challenging. Many organizations and collaborative groups have suggested numerous definitions and diagnostic criteria for concussion in an attempt to improve the evidence-based clinical assessments and therapies for concussion. Proper assessment and evaluation is crucial starting from counseling of the patient, gradual return to cognitive and physical activity in an individualized treatment plan to ensure a timely return to daily activities and full sport participation. This report provides a grasp over the current state of sport-related concussion knowledge, diagnosis, and clinical evaluation in children and adolescent, with a focus on the ocular symptoms and signs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jamila G Hiasat
- Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Strabismus, and Adult Motility, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Ken K Nischal
- Division of Pediatric Ophthalmology, Strabismus, and Adult Motility, UPMC Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine , Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Supranuclear Horizontal Gaze Palsy Following Anterior Internal Capsule Hemorrhage. Can J Neurol Sci 2020; 47:822-823. [DOI: 10.1017/cjn.2020.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
17
|
Sajad A, Sadeh M, Crawford JD. Spatiotemporal transformations for gaze control. Physiol Rep 2020; 8:e14533. [PMID: 32812395 PMCID: PMC7435051 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.14533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensorimotor transformations require spatiotemporal coordination of signals, that is, through both time and space. For example, the gaze control system employs signals that are time-locked to various sensorimotor events, but the spatial content of these signals is difficult to assess during ordinary gaze shifts. In this review, we describe the various models and methods that have been devised to test this question, and their limitations. We then describe a new method that can (a) simultaneously test between all of these models during natural, head-unrestrained conditions, and (b) track the evolving spatial continuum from target (T) to future gaze coding (G, including errors) through time. We then summarize some applications of this technique, comparing spatiotemporal coding in the primate frontal eye field (FEF) and superior colliculus (SC). The results confirm that these areas preferentially encode eye-centered, effector-independent parameters, and show-for the first time in ordinary gaze shifts-a spatial transformation between visual and motor responses from T to G coding. We introduce a new set of spatial models (T-G continuum) that revealed task-dependent timing of this transformation: progressive during a memory delay between vision and action, and almost immediate without such a delay. We synthesize the results from our studies and supplement it with previous knowledge of anatomy and physiology to propose a conceptual model where cumulative transformation noise is realized as inaccuracies in gaze behavior. We conclude that the spatiotemporal transformation for gaze is both local (observed within and across neurons in a given area) and distributed (with common signals shared across remote but interconnected structures).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amirsaman Sajad
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Psychology DepartmentVanderbilt UniversityNashvilleTNUSA
| | - Morteza Sadeh
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Department of NeurosurgeryUniversity of Illinois at ChicagoChicagoILUSA
| | - John Douglas Crawford
- Centre for Vision ResearchYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
- Vision: Science to Applications Program (VISTA)Neuroscience Graduate Diploma ProgramDepartments of Psychology, Biology, Kinesiology & Health SciencesYork UniversityTorontoONCanada
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Cushnie AK, El-Nahal HG, Bohlen MO, May PJ, Basso MA, Grimaldi P, Wang MZ, de Velasco Ezequiel MF, Sommer MA, Heilbronner SR. Using rAAV2-retro in rhesus macaques: Promise and caveats for circuit manipulation. J Neurosci Methods 2020; 345:108859. [PMID: 32668316 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2020.108859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent genetic technologies such as opto- and chemogenetics allow for the manipulation of brain circuits with unprecedented precision. Most studies employing these techniques have been undertaken in rodents, but a more human-homologous model for studying the brain is the nonhuman primate (NHP). Optimizing viral delivery of transgenes encoding actuator proteins could revolutionize the way we study neuronal circuits in NHPs. NEW METHOD: rAAV2-retro, a popular new capsid variant, produces robust retrograde labeling in rodents. Whether rAAV2-retro's highly efficient retrograde transport would translate to NHPs was unknown. Here, we characterized the anatomical distribution of labeling following injections of rAAV2-retro encoding opsins or DREADDs in the cortico-basal ganglia and oculomotor circuits of rhesus macaques. RESULTS rAAV2-retro injections in striatum, frontal eye field, and superior colliculus produced local labeling at injection sites and robust retrograde labeling in many afferent regions. In every case, however, a few brain regions with well-established projections to the injected structure lacked retrogradely labeled cells. We also observed robust terminal field labeling in downstream structures. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHOD(S) Patterns of labeling were similar to those obtained with traditional tract-tracers, except for some afferent labeling that was noticeably absent. CONCLUSIONS rAAV2-retro promises to be useful for circuit manipulation via retrograde transduction in NHPs, but caveats were revealed by our findings. Some afferently connected regions lacked retrogradely labeled cells, showed robust axon terminal labeling, or both. This highlights the importance of anatomically characterizing rAAV2-retro's expression in target circuits in NHPs before moving to manipulation studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana K Cushnie
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | - Hala G El-Nahal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
| | - Martin O Bohlen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
| | - Paul J May
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, 39216, United States
| | - Michele A Basso
- Fuster Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences and Neurobiology, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, Univ. of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Piercesare Grimaldi
- Fuster Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences and Neurobiology, Jane and Terry Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, Univ. of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Maya Zhe Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
| | | | - Marc A Sommer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States; Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27708, United States; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
| | - Sarah R Heilbronner
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Keating CE, Browne KD, Duda JE, Cullen DK. Neurons in Subcortical Oculomotor Regions Are Vulnerable to Plasma Membrane Damage after Repetitive Diffuse Traumatic Brain Injury in Swine. J Neurotrauma 2020; 37:1918-1932. [PMID: 32178582 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2019.6738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oculomotor deficits, such as insufficiencies in accommodation, convergence, and saccades, are common following traumatic brain injury (TBI). Previous studies in patients with mild TBI attributed these deficits to insufficient activation of subcortical oculomotor nuclei, although the exact mechanism is unknown. A possible cause for neuronal dysfunction in these regions is biomechanically induced plasma membrane permeability. We used our established porcine model of head rotational TBI to investigate whether cell permeability changes occurred in subcortical oculomotor areas following single or repetitive TBI, with repetitive injuries separated by 15 min, 3 days, or 7 days. Swine were subjected to sham conditions or head rotational acceleration in the sagittal plane using a HYGE pneumatic actuator. Two hours prior to the final injury, the cell-impermeant dye Lucifer Yellow was injected into the ventricles to diffuse throughout the interstitial space to assess plasmalemmal permeability. Animals were sacrificed 15 min after the final injury for immunohistological analysis. Brain regions examined for cell membrane permeability included caudate, substantia nigra pars reticulata, superior colliculus, and cranial nerve oculomotor nuclei. We found that the distribution of permeabilized neurons varied depending on the number and spacing of injuries. Repetitive injuries separated by 15 min or 3 days resulted in the most permeability. Many permeabilized cells lost neuron-specific nuclear protein reactivity, although no neuronal loss occurred acutely after injury. Microglia contacted and appeared to begin phagocytosing permeabilized neurons in repetitively injured animals. These pathologies within oculomotor areas may mediate transient dysfunction and/or degeneration that may contribute to oculomotor deficits following diffuse TBI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn E Keating
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration and Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kevin D Browne
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration and Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - John E Duda
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration and Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - D Kacy Cullen
- Center for Neurotrauma, Neurodegeneration and Restoration, Corporal Michael J. Crescenz Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Dash S, Peel TR, Lomber SG, Corneil BD. Impairment but not abolishment of express saccades after unilateral or bilateral inactivation of the frontal eye fields. J Neurophysiol 2020; 123:1907-1919. [PMID: 32267202 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00191.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Express saccades are a manifestation of a visual grasp reflex triggered when visual information arrives in the intermediate layers of the superior colliculus (SCi), which in turn orchestrates the lower level brainstem saccade generator to evoke a saccade with a very short latency (~100 ms or less). A prominent theory regarding express saccades generation is that they are facilitated by preparatory signals, presumably from cortical areas, which prime the SCi before the arrival of visual information. Here, we test this theory by reversibly inactivating a key cortical input to the SCi, the frontal eye fields (FEF), while monkeys perform an oculomotor task that promotes express saccades. Across three tasks with a different combination of potential target locations and unilateral or bilateral FEF inactivation, we found a spared ability for monkeys to generate express saccades, despite decreases in express saccade frequency during FEF inactivation. This result is consistent with the FEF having a facilitatory but not critical role in express saccade generation, likely because other cortical areas compensate for the loss of preparatory input to the SCi. However, we also found decreases in the accuracy and peak velocity of express saccades generated during FEF inactivation, which argues for an influence of the FEF on the saccadic burst generator even during express saccades. Overall, our results shed further light on the role of the FEF in the shortest-latency visually-guided eye movements.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Express saccades are the shortest-latency saccade. The frontal eye fields (FEF) are thought to promote express saccades by presetting the superior colliculus. Here, by reversibly inactivating the FEF either unilaterally or bilaterally via cortical cooling, we support this by showing that the FEF plays a facilitative but not critical role in express saccade generation. We also found that FEF inactivation lowered express saccade peak velocity, emphasizing a contribution of the FEF to express saccade kinematics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suryadeep Dash
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tyler R Peel
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Stephen G Lomber
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Brian D Corneil
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Robarts Research Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Adam R, Johnston K, Menon RS, Everling S. Functional reorganization during the recovery of contralesional target selection deficits after prefrontal cortex lesions in macaque monkeys. Neuroimage 2020; 207:116339. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
|
22
|
Schaeffer DJ, Gilbert KM, Hori Y, Hayrynen LK, Johnston KD, Gati JS, Menon RS, Everling S. Task-based fMRI of a free-viewing visuo-saccadic network in the marmoset monkey. Neuroimage 2019; 202:116147. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
|
23
|
Tang SY, Shaikh AG. Past and Present of Eye Movement Abnormalities in Ataxia-Telangiectasia. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2019; 18:556-564. [PMID: 30523550 PMCID: PMC6751135 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-018-0990-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Ataxia-telangiectasia is the second most common autosomal recessive hereditary ataxia, with an estimated incidence of 1 in 100,000 births. Besides ataxia and ocular telangiectasias, eye movement abnormalities have long been associated with this disorder and is frequently present in almost all patients. A handful of studies have described the phenomenology of ocular motor deficits in ataxia-telangiectasia. Contemporary literature linked their physiology to cerebellar dysfunction and secondary abnormalities at the level of brainstem. These studies, while providing a proof of concept of ocular motor physiology in disease, i.e., ataxia-telangiectasia, also advanced our understanding of how the cerebellum works. Here, we will summarize the clinical abnormalities seen with ataxia-telangiectasia in each subtype of eye movements and subsequently describe the underlying pathophysiology. Finally, we will review how these deficits are linked to abnormal cerebellar function and how it allows better understanding of the cerebellar physiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sherry Y Tang
- Department of Neurology, Neurology Service, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44110, USA
| | - Aasef G Shaikh
- Department of Neurology, Neurology Service, Cleveland VA Medical Center, Case Western Reserve University, 11100 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH, 44110, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Subramanian D, Alers A, Sommer MA. Corollary Discharge for Action and Cognition. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2019; 4:782-790. [PMID: 31351985 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
In motor systems, a copy of the movement command known as corollary discharge is broadcast to other regions of the brain to warn them of the impending movement. The premise of this review is that the concept of corollary discharge may generalize in revealing ways to the brain's cognitive systems. An oculomotor pathway from the brain stem to frontal cortex provides a well-established example of how corollary discharge is instantiated for sensorimotor processing. Building on causal evidence from inactivation of the pathway, we motivate forward models as a tool for understanding the contributions of corollary discharge to perception and movement. Finally, we extend the definition of corollary discharge to account for signals that may be used for cognitive forward models of decision making. This framework may provide new insights into signals and circuits that contribute to sequential decision processes, the breakdown of which may account for some symptoms of psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Divya Subramanian
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Anthony Alers
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Marc A Sommer
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Schaeffer DJ, Johnston KD, Gilbert KM, Gati JS, Menon RS, Everling S. In vivo manganese tract tracing of frontal eye fields in rhesus macaques with ultra-high field MRI: Comparison with DWI tractography. Neuroimage 2018; 181:211-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.06.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
|
26
|
Matsumoto M, Inoue KI, Takada M. Causal Role of Neural Signals Transmitted From the Frontal Eye Field to the Superior Colliculus in Saccade Generation. Front Neural Circuits 2018; 12:69. [PMID: 30210307 PMCID: PMC6120992 DOI: 10.3389/fncir.2018.00069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The frontal eye field (FEF) and superior colliculus (SC) are major and well-studied components of the oculomotor system. The FEF sends strong projections to the SC directly, and neurons in these brain regions transmit a variety of signals related to saccadic eye movements. Electrical microstimulation and pharmacological manipulation targeting the FEF or SC affect saccadic eye movements. These data suggest the causal contribution of each region to saccade generation. To understand how the brain generates behavior, however, it is critical not only to identify the structures and functions of individual regions, but also to elucidate how they interact with each other. In this review article, we first survey previous works that aimed at investigating whether and how the FEF and SC interact to regulate saccadic eye movements using electrophysiological and pharmacological techniques. These works have reported what signals FEF neurons transmit to the SC and what roles such signals play in regulating oculomotor behavior. We then highlight a recent attempt of our own that has applied an optogenetic approach to stimulate the neural pathway from the FEF to the SC in nonhuman primates. This study has shown that optogenetic stimulation of the FEF-SC pathway is sufficiently effective not only to modulate SC neuron activity, but also to evoke saccadic eye movements. Although the oculomotor system is a complex neural network composed of numbers of cortical and subcortical regions, the optogenetic approach will provide a powerful strategy for elucidating the role of each neural pathway constituting this network.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Matsumoto
- Division of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Graduate School of Comprehensive Human Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Transborder Medical Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Inoue
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Japan.,Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology (PRESTO), Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST), Kawaguchi, Japan
| | - Masahiko Takada
- Systems Neuroscience Section, Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Inuyama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Single-axon tracing of the corticosubthalamic hyperdirect pathway in primates. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:3959-3973. [PMID: 30109491 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1726-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Individual axons that form the hyperdirect pathway in Macaca fascicularis were visualized following microiontophoretic injections of biotinylated dextran amine in layer V of the primary motor cortex (M1). Twenty-eight singly labeled axons were reconstructed in 3D from serial sections. The M1 innervation of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) arises essentially from collaterals of long-ranged corticofugal axons en route to lower brainstem regions. Typically, after leaving M1, these large caliber axons (2-3 µm) enter the internal capsule and travel between caudate nucleus and putamen without providing any collateral to the striatum. More ventrally, they emit a thin collateral (0.5-1.5 µm) that runs lateromedially within the dorsal region of the STN, providing boutons en passant in the sensorimotor territory of the nucleus. In some cases, the medial tip of the collateral enters the lenticular fasciculus dorsally and yields a few beaded axonal branches in the zona incerta. In other cases, the collateral runs caudally and innervates the ventrolateral region of the red nucleus where large axon varicosities (up to 1.7 µm in diameter) are observed, many displaying perisomatic arrangements. Our ultrastructural analysis reveals a high synaptic incidence (141%) of cortical VGluT1-immunoreactive axon varicosities on distal dendrites of STN neurons, and on various afferent axons. Our single-axon reconstructions demonstrate that the so-called hyperdirect pathway derives essentially from collaterals of long-ranged corticofugal axons that are rarely exclusively devoted to the STN, as they also innervate the red nucleus and/or the zona incerta.
Collapse
|
28
|
Srivastava A, Ahmad OF, Pacia CP, Hallett M, Lungu C. The Relationship between Saccades and Locomotion. J Mov Disord 2018; 11:93-106. [PMID: 30086615 PMCID: PMC6182301 DOI: 10.14802/jmd.18018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Human locomotion involves a complex interplay among multiple brain regions and depends on constant feedback from the visual system. We summarize here the current understanding of the relationship among fixations, saccades, and gait as observed in studies sampling eye movements during locomotion, through a review of the literature and a synthesis of the relevant knowledge on the topic. A significant overlap in locomotor and saccadic neural circuitry exists that may support this relationship. Several animal studies have identified potential integration nodes between these overlapping circuitries. Behavioral studies that explored the relationship of saccadic and gait-related impairments in normal conditions and in various disease states are also discussed. Eye movements and locomotion share many underlying neural circuits, and further studies can leverage this interplay for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anshul Srivastava
- Human Motor Control Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Omar F Ahmad
- Human Motor Control Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christopher Pham Pacia
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, Saint Louis, MO, USA
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Codrin Lungu
- Division of Clinical Research, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Seideman JA, Stanford TR, Salinas E. Saccade metrics reflect decision-making dynamics during urgent choices. Nat Commun 2018; 9:2907. [PMID: 30046066 PMCID: PMC6060154 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-05319-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
A perceptual judgment is typically characterized by constructing psychometric and chronometric functions, i.e., by mapping the accuracies and reaction times of motor choices as functions of a sensory stimulus feature dimension. Here, we show that various saccade metrics (e.g., peak velocity) are similarly modulated as functions of sensory cue viewing time during performance of an urgent-decision task. Each of the newly discovered functions reveals the dynamics of the perceptual evaluation process inherent to the underlying judgment. Remarkably, saccade peak velocity correlates with statistical decision confidence, suggesting that saccade kinematics reflect the degree of certainty with which an urgent perceptual decision is made. The data were explained by a race-to-threshold model that also replicates standard performance measures and cortical oculomotor neuronal activity in the task. The results indicate that, although largely stereotyped, saccade metrics carry subtle but reliable traces of the underlying cognitive processes that give rise to each oculomotor choice.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua A Seideman
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA.
| | - Terrence R Stanford
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA
| | - Emilio Salinas
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Wake Forest School of Medicine, 1 Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC, 27157-1010, USA
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Isaacs BR, Forstmann BU, Temel Y, Keuken MC. The Connectivity Fingerprint of the Human Frontal Cortex, Subthalamic Nucleus, and Striatum. Front Neuroanat 2018; 12:60. [PMID: 30072875 PMCID: PMC6060372 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the cortico basal ganglia (BG)-thalamic network, the direct and indirect pathways comprise of projections from the cortex to the striatum (STR), whereas the hyperdirect pathway(s) consist of cortical projections toward the subthalamic nucleus (STN). Each pathway possesses a functionally distinct role for action selection. The current study quantified and compared the structural connectivity between 17 distinct cortical areas with the STN and STR using 7 Tesla diffusion weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) and resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) in healthy young subjects. The selection of these cortical areas was based on a literature search focusing on animal tracer studies. The results indicate that, relative to other cortical areas, both the STN and STR showed markedly weaker structural connections to areas assumed to be essential for action inhibition such as the inferior frontal cortex pars opercularis. Additionally, the cortical connectivity fingerprint of the STN and STR indicated relatively strong connections to areas related to voluntary motor initiation such as the cingulate motor area and supplementary motor area. Overall the results indicated that the cortical-STN connections were sparser compared to the STR. There were two notable exceptions, namely for the orbitofrontal cortex and ventral medial prefrontal cortex, where a higher tract strength was found for the STN. These two areas are thought to be involved in reward processing and action bias.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bethany R. Isaacs
- Integrative Model-Based Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Birte U. Forstmann
- Integrative Model-Based Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Yasin Temel
- Department of Neurosurgery, Maastricht University Medical Center, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Department of Neuroscience, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Max C. Keuken
- Integrative Model-Based Cognitive Neuroscience Research Unit, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Change of information represented by thalamic mediodorsal neurons during the delay period. Neuroreport 2018; 29:466-471. [DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000000998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
32
|
James SS, Papapavlou C, Blenkinsop A, Cope AJ, Anderson SR, Moustakas K, Gurney KN. Integrating Brain and Biomechanical Models-A New Paradigm for Understanding Neuro-muscular Control. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:39. [PMID: 29467606 PMCID: PMC5808253 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, realistic models of how the central nervous system governs behavior have been restricted in scope to the brain, brainstem or spinal column, as if these existed as disembodied organs. Further, the model is often exercised in relation to an in vivo physiological experiment with input comprising an impulse, a periodic signal or constant activation, and output as a pattern of neural activity in one or more neural populations. Any link to behavior is inferred only indirectly via these activity patterns. We argue that to discover the principles of operation of neural systems, it is necessary to express their behavior in terms of physical movements of a realistic motor system, and to supply inputs that mimic sensory experience. To do this with confidence, we must connect our brain models to neuro-muscular models and provide relevant visual and proprioceptive feedback signals, thereby closing the loop of the simulation. This paper describes an effort to develop just such an integrated brain and biomechanical system using a number of pre-existing models. It describes a model of the saccadic oculomotor system incorporating a neuromuscular model of the eye and its six extraocular muscles. The position of the eye determines how illumination of a retinotopic input population projects information about the location of a saccade target into the system. A pre-existing saccadic burst generator model was incorporated into the system, which generated motoneuron activity patterns suitable for driving the biomechanical eye. The model was demonstrated to make accurate saccades to a target luminance under a set of environmental constraints. Challenges encountered in the development of this model showed the importance of this integrated modeling approach. Thus, we exposed shortcomings in individual model components which were only apparent when these were supplied with the more plausible inputs available in a closed loop design. Consequently we were able to suggest missing functionality which the system would require to reproduce more realistic behavior. The construction of such closed-loop animal models constitutes a new paradigm of computational neurobehavior and promises a more thoroughgoing approach to our understanding of the brain's function as a controller for movement and behavior.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian S. James
- Adaptive Behaviour Research Group, Department of Psychology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In-Silico Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Chris Papapavlou
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Alexander Blenkinsop
- Adaptive Behaviour Research Group, Department of Psychology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In-Silico Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander J. Cope
- Department of Computer Science, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Sean R. Anderson
- Insigneo Institute for In-Silico Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Department of Automatic Control Systems Engineering, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Konstantinos Moustakas
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, The University of Patras, Patras, Greece
| | - Kevin N. Gurney
- Adaptive Behaviour Research Group, Department of Psychology, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Insigneo Institute for In-Silico Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Stepniewska I, Pouget P, Kaas JH. Frontal eye field in prosimian galagos: Intracortical microstimulation and tracing studies. J Comp Neurol 2017; 526:626-652. [PMID: 29127718 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Revised: 10/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The frontal eye field (FEF) in prosimian primates was identified as a small cortical region, above and anterior to the anterior frontal sulcus, from which saccadic eye movements were evoked with electrical stimulation. Tracer injections revealed FEF connections with cortical and subcortical structures participating in higher order visual processing. Ipsilateral cortical connections were the densest with adjoining parts of the dorsal premotor and prefrontal cortex (PFC). Label in a region corresponding to supplementary eye field (SEF) of other primates, suggests the existence of SEF in galagos. Other connections were with ventral premotor cortex (PMV), the caudal half of posterior parietal cortex, cingulate cortex, visual areas within the superior temporal sulcus, and inferotemporal cortex. Callosal connections were mostly with the region of the FEF of another hemisphere, SEF, PFC, and PMV. Most subcortical connections were ipsilateral, but some were bilateral. Dense bilateral connections were to caudate nuclei. Densest reciprocal ipsilateral connections were with the paralamellar portion of mediodorsal nucleus, intralaminar nuclei and magnocellular portion of ventral anterior nucleus. Other FEF connections were with the claustrum, reticular nucleus, zona incerta, lateral posterior and medial pulvinar nuclei, nucleus limitans, pretectal area, nucleus of Darkschewitsch, mesencephalic and pontine reticular formation and pontine nuclei. Surprisingly, the superior colliculus (SC) contained only sparse anterograde label. Although most FEF connections in galagos are similar to those in monkeys, the FEF-SC connections appear to be much less. This suggests that a major contribution of the FEF to visuomotor functions of SC emerged with the evolution of anthropoid primates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iwona Stepniewska
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Pierre Pouget
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Jon H Kaas
- Department of Psychology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
The rostromedial zona incerta is involved in attentional processes while adjacent LHA responds to arousal: c-Fos and anatomical evidence. Brain Struct Funct 2017; 222:2507-2525. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-016-1353-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
|
35
|
Battaglia-Mayer A, Babicola L, Satta E. Parieto-frontal gradients and domains underlying eye and hand operations in the action space. Neuroscience 2016; 334:76-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
36
|
Rao HM, Mayo JP, Sommer MA. Circuits for presaccadic visual remapping. J Neurophysiol 2016; 116:2624-2636. [PMID: 27655962 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00182.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Saccadic eye movements rapidly displace the image of the world that is projected onto the retinas. In anticipation of each saccade, many neurons in the visual system shift their receptive fields. This presaccadic change in visual sensitivity, known as remapping, was first documented in the parietal cortex and has been studied in many other brain regions. Remapping requires information about upcoming saccades via corollary discharge. Analyses of neurons in a corollary discharge pathway that targets the frontal eye field (FEF) suggest that remapping may be assembled in the FEF's local microcircuitry. Complementary data from reversible inactivation, neural recording, and modeling studies provide evidence that remapping contributes to transsaccadic continuity of action and perception. Multiple forms of remapping have been reported in the FEF and other brain areas, however, and questions remain about the reasons for these differences. In this review of recent progress, we identify three hypotheses that may help to guide further investigations into the structure and function of circuits for remapping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hrishikesh M Rao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina;
| | - J Patrick Mayo
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; and
| | - Marc A Sommer
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Pratt School of Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina.,Department of Neurobiology, Duke School of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina; and.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Abstract
Unidirectional connections from the cortex to the matrix of the corpus striatum initiate the cortico-basal ganglia (BG)-thalamocortical loop, thought to be important in momentary action selection and in longer-term fine tuning of behavioural repertoire; a discrete set of striatal compartments, striosomes, has the complementary role of registering or anticipating reward that shapes corticostriatal plasticity. Re-entrant signals traversing the cortico-BG loop impact predominantly frontal cortices, conveyed through topographically ordered output channels; by contrast, striatal input signals originate from a far broader span of cortex, and are far more divergent in their termination. The term 'disclosed loop' is introduced to describe this organisation: a closed circuit that is open to outside influence at the initial stage of cortical input. The closed circuit component of corticostriatal afferents is newly dubbed 'operative', as it is proposed to establish the bid for action selection on the part of an incipient cortical action plan; the broader set of converging corticostriatal afferents is described as contextual. A corollary of this proposal is that every unit of the striatal volume, including the long, C-shaped tail of the caudate nucleus, should receive a mandatory component of operative input, and hence include at least one area of BG-recipient cortex amongst the sources of its corticostriatal afferents. Individual operative afferents contact twin classes of GABAergic striatal projection neuron (SPN), distinguished by their neurochemical character, and onward circuitry. This is the basis of the classic direct and indirect pathway model of the cortico-BG loop. Each pathway utilises a serial chain of inhibition, with two such links, or three, providing positive and negative feedback, respectively. Operative co-activation of direct and indirect SPNs is, therefore, pictured to simultaneously promote action, and to restrain it. The balance of this rival activity is determined by the contextual inputs, which summarise the external and internal sensory environment, and the state of ongoing behavioural priorities. Notably, the distributed sources of contextual convergence upon a striatal locus mirror the transcortical network harnessed by the origin of the operative input to that locus, thereby capturing a similar set of contingencies relevant to determining action. The disclosed loop formulation of corticostriatal and subsequent BG loop circuitry, as advanced here, refines the operating rationale of the classic model and allows the integration of more recent anatomical and physiological data, some of which can appear at variance with the classic model. Equally, it provides a lucid functional context for continuing cellular studies of SPN biophysics and mechanisms of synaptic plasticity.
Collapse
|
38
|
Provost JS, Hanganu A, Monchi O. Neuroimaging studies of the striatum in cognition Part I: healthy individuals. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:140. [PMID: 26500513 PMCID: PMC4596942 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The striatum has traditionally mainly been associated with playing a key role in the modulation of motor functions. Indeed, lesion studies in animals and studies of some neurological conditions in humans have brought further evidence to this idea. However, better methods of investigation have raised concerns about this notion, and it was proposed that the striatum could also be involved in different types of functions including cognitive ones. Although the notion was originally a matter of debate, it is now well-accepted that the caudate nucleus contributes to cognition, while the putamen could be involved in motor functions, and to some extent in cognitive functions as well. With the arrival of modern neuroimaging techniques in the early 1990, knowledge supporting the cognitive aspect of the striatum has greatly increased, and a substantial number of scientific papers were published studying the role of the striatum in healthy individuals. For the first time, it was possible to assess the contribution of specific areas of the brain during the execution of a cognitive task. Neuroanatomical studies have described functional loops involving the striatum and the prefrontal cortex suggesting a specific interaction between these two structures. This review examines the data up to date and provides strong evidence for a specific contribution of the fronto-striatal regions in different cognitive processes, such as set-shifting, self-initiated responses, rule learning, action-contingency, and planning. Finally, a new two-level functional model involving the prefrontal cortex and the dorsal striatum is proposed suggesting an essential role of the dorsal striatum in selecting between competing potential responses or actions, and in resolving a high level of ambiguity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Sebastien Provost
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, University of Montreal Montreal, QC, Canada ; Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montreal, Université de Montreal Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Alexandru Hanganu
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Radiology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Oury Monchi
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montreal, Université de Montreal Montreal, QC, Canada ; Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Radiology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada ; Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary Calgary, AB, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Abstract
Lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) is regarded as the hub of the brain's working memory (WM) system, but it remains unclear whether WM is supported by a single distributed network or multiple specialized network components in this region. To investigate this problem, we recorded from neurons in PFC while monkeys made delayed eye movements guided by memory or vision. We show that neuronal responses during these tasks map to three anatomically specific modes of persistent activity. The first two modes encode early and late forms of information storage, whereas the third mode encodes response preparation. Neurons that reflect these modes are concentrated at different anatomical locations in PFC and exhibit distinct patterns of coordinated firing rates and spike timing during WM, consistent with distinct networks. These findings support multiple component models of WM and consequently predict distinct failures that could contribute to neurologic dysfunction.
Collapse
|
40
|
Gerbella M, Borra E, Mangiaracina C, Rozzi S, Luppino G. Corticostriate Projections from Areas of the “Lateral Grasping Network”: Evidence for Multiple Hand-Related Input Channels. Cereb Cortex 2015; 26:3096-115. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhv135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
41
|
Percheron G, François C, Pouget P. What makes a frontal area of primate brain the frontal eye field? Front Integr Neurosci 2015; 9:33. [PMID: 26042006 PMCID: PMC4434979 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2015.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2014] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The frontal eye field region (FEF) of the oculomotor pathways has been intensely studied. The primary goal of this review is to illustrate the phylogenetic displacement of the FEF locus in primate species. The locus is arrayed along the arcuate sulcus in monkeys and abuts into the primary motor strip region in humans. The strengths and limitations of the various functional, anatomical and histological methodologies used to identify such regions are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gérard Percheron
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, UM75, U1127, UMR 7225, ICM Paris, France
| | - Chantal François
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, UM75, U1127, UMR 7225, ICM Paris, France
| | - Pierre Pouget
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, UM75, U1127, UMR 7225, ICM Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Abstract
The main impetus for a mini-symposium on corticothalamic interrelationships was the recent number of studies highlighting the role of the thalamus in aspects of cognition beyond sensory processing. The thalamus contributes to a range of basic cognitive behaviors that include learning and memory, inhibitory control, decision-making, and the control of visual orienting responses. Its functions are deeply intertwined with those of the better studied cortex, although the principles governing its coordination with the cortex remain opaque, particularly in higher-level aspects of cognition. How should the thalamus be viewed in the context of the rest of the brain? Although its role extends well beyond relaying of sensory information from the periphery, the main function of many of its subdivisions does appear to be that of a relay station, transmitting neural signals primarily to the cerebral cortex from a number of brain areas. In cognition, its main contribution may thus be to coordinate signals between diverse regions of the telencephalon, including the neocortex, hippocampus, amygdala, and striatum. This central coordination is further subject to considerable extrinsic control, for example, inhibition from the basal ganglia, zona incerta, and pretectal regions, and chemical modulation from ascending neurotransmitter systems. What follows is a brief review on the role of the thalamus in aspects of cognition and behavior, focusing on a summary of the topics covered in a mini-symposium held at the Society for Neuroscience meeting, 2014.
Collapse
|
43
|
Vernet M, Quentin R, Chanes L, Mitsumasu A, Valero-Cabré A. Frontal eye field, where art thou? Anatomy, function, and non-invasive manipulation of frontal regions involved in eye movements and associated cognitive operations. Front Integr Neurosci 2014; 8:66. [PMID: 25202241 PMCID: PMC4141567 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2014.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 08/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The planning, control and execution of eye movements in 3D space relies on a distributed system of cortical and subcortical brain regions. Within this network, the Eye Fields have been described in animals as cortical regions in which electrical stimulation is able to trigger eye movements and influence their latency or accuracy. This review focuses on the Frontal Eye Field (FEF) a “hub” region located in Humans in the vicinity of the pre-central sulcus and the dorsal-most portion of the superior frontal sulcus. The straightforward localization of the FEF through electrical stimulation in animals is difficult to translate to the healthy human brain, particularly with non-invasive neuroimaging techniques. Hence, in the first part of this review, we describe attempts made to characterize the anatomical localization of this area in the human brain. The outcome of functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Magneto-encephalography (MEG) and particularly, non-invasive mapping methods such a Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) are described and the variability of FEF localization across individuals and mapping techniques are discussed. In the second part of this review, we will address the role of the FEF. We explore its involvement both in the physiology of fixation, saccade, pursuit, and vergence movements and in associated cognitive processes such as attentional orienting, visual awareness and perceptual modulation. Finally in the third part, we review recent evidence suggesting the high level of malleability and plasticity of these regions and associated networks to non-invasive stimulation. The exploratory, diagnostic, and therapeutic interest of such interventions for the modulation and improvement of perception in 3D space are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marine Vernet
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, CNRS UMR 7225, INSERM UMRS 975 and Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Romain Quentin
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, CNRS UMR 7225, INSERM UMRS 975 and Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Lorena Chanes
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, CNRS UMR 7225, INSERM UMRS 975 and Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Andres Mitsumasu
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, CNRS UMR 7225, INSERM UMRS 975 and Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France
| | - Antoni Valero-Cabré
- Centre de Recherche de l'Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle Epinière, CNRS UMR 7225, INSERM UMRS 975 and Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris, France ; Laboratory for Cerebral Dynamics Plasticity and Rehabilitation, School of Medicine, Boston University Boston, MA, USA ; Cognitive Neuroscience and Information Technology Research Program, Open University of Catalonia Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Excitatory synaptic feedback from the motor layer to the sensory layers of the superior colliculus. J Neurosci 2014; 34:6822-33. [PMID: 24828636 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3137-13.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural circuits that translate sensory information into motor commands are organized in a feedforward manner converting sensory information into motor output. The superior colliculus (SC) follows this pattern as it plays a role in converting visual information from the retina and visual cortex into motor commands for rapid eye movements (saccades). Feedback from movement to sensory regions is hypothesized to play critical roles in attention, visual image stability, and saccadic suppression, but in contrast to feedforward pathways, motor feedback to sensory regions has received much less attention. The present study used voltage imaging and patch-clamp recording in slices of rat SC to test the hypothesis of an excitatory synaptic pathway from the motor layers of the SC back to the sensory superficial layers. Voltage imaging revealed an extensive depolarization of the superficial layers evoked by electrical stimulation of the motor layers. A pharmacologically isolated excitatory synaptic potential in the superficial layers depended on stimulus strength in the motor layers in a manner consistent with orthodromic excitation. Patch-clamp recording from neurons in the sensory layers revealed excitatory synaptic potentials in response to glutamate application in the motor layers. The location, size, and morphology of responsive neurons indicated they were likely to be narrow-field vertical cells. This excitatory projection from motor to sensory layers adds an important element to the circuitry of the SC and reveals a novel feedback pathway that could play a role in enhancing sensory responses to attended targets as well as visual image stabilization.
Collapse
|
45
|
Savaki HE, Gregoriou GG, Bakola S, Moschovakis AK. Topography of Visuomotor Parameters in the Frontal and Premotor Eye Fields. Cereb Cortex 2014; 25:3095-106. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhu106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
46
|
Smith JB, Alloway KD. Interhemispheric claustral circuits coordinate sensory and motor cortical areas that regulate exploratory behaviors. Front Syst Neurosci 2014; 8:93. [PMID: 24904315 PMCID: PMC4032913 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 04/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The claustrum has a role in the interhemispheric transfer of certain types of sensorimotor information. Whereas the whisker region in rat motor (M1) cortex sends dense projections to the contralateral claustrum, the M1 forelimb representation does not. The claustrum sends strong ipsilateral projections to the whisker regions in M1 and somatosensory (S1) cortex, but its projections to the forelimb cortical areas are weak. These distinctions suggest that one function of the M1 projections to the contralateral claustrum is to coordinate the cortical areas that regulate peripheral sensor movements during behaviors that depend on bilateral sensory acquisition. If this hypothesis is true, then similar interhemispheric circuits should interconnect the frontal eye fields (FEF) with the contralateral claustrum and its network of projections to vision-related cortical areas. To test this hypothesis, anterograde and retrograde tracers were placed in physiologically-defined parts of the FEF and primary visual cortex (V1) in rats. We observed dense FEF projections to the contralateral claustrum that terminated in the midst of claustral neurons that project to both FEF and V1. While the FEF inputs to the claustrum come predominantly from the contralateral hemisphere, the claustral projections to FEF and V1 are primarily ipsilateral. Detailed comparison of the present results with our previous studies on somatomotor claustral circuitry revealed a well-defined functional topography in which the ventral claustrum is connected with visuomotor cortical areas and the dorsal regions are connected with somatomotor areas. These results suggest that subregions within the claustrum play a critical role in coordinating the cortical areas that regulate the acquisition of modality-specific sensory information during exploration and other behaviors that require sensory attention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jared B Smith
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Penn State University University Park, PA, USA ; Center for Neural Engineering, Penn State University University Park, PA, USA
| | - Kevin D Alloway
- Center for Neural Engineering, Penn State University University Park, PA, USA ; Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State University Hershey, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
N'guyen S, Thurat C, Girard B. Saccade learning with concurrent cortical and subcortical basal ganglia loops. Front Comput Neurosci 2014; 8:48. [PMID: 24795615 PMCID: PMC4005946 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2014.00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Basal Ganglia (BG) is a central structure involved in multiple cortical and subcortical loops. Some of these loops are believed to be responsible for saccade target selection. We study here how the very specific structural relationships of these saccadic loops can affect the ability of learning spatial and feature-based tasks. We propose a model of saccade generation with reinforcement learning capabilities based on our previous BG and superior colliculus models. It is structured around the interactions of two parallel cortico-basal loops and one tecto-basal loop. The two cortical loops separately deal with spatial and non-spatial information to select targets in a concurrent way. The subcortical loop is used to make the final target selection leading to the production of the saccade. These different loops may work in concert or disturb each other regarding reward maximization. Interactions between these loops and their learning capabilities are tested on different saccade tasks. The results show the ability of this model to correctly learn basic target selection based on different criteria (spatial or not). Moreover the model reproduces and explains training dependent express saccades toward targets based on a spatial criterion. Finally, the model predicts that in absence of prefrontal control, the spatial loop should dominate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steve N'guyen
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France ; CNRS, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France ; LPPA, Collège de France, CNRS UMR 7152 Paris, France
| | - Charles Thurat
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France ; CNRS, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France
| | - Benoît Girard
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France ; CNRS, UMR 7222, ISIR Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Anatomical evidence that the superior colliculus controls saccades through central mesencephalic reticular formation gating of omnipause neuron activity. J Neurosci 2013; 33:16285-96. [PMID: 24107960 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2726-11.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Omnipause neurons (OPNs) within the nucleus raphe interpositus (RIP) help gate the transition between fixation and saccadic eye movements by monosynaptically suppressing activity in premotor burst neurons during fixation, and releasing them during saccades. Premotor neuron activity is initiated by excitatory input from the superior colliculus (SC), but how the tectum's saccade-related activity turns off OPNs is not known. Since the central mesencephalic reticular formation (cMRF) is a major SC target, we explored whether this nucleus has the appropriate connections to support tectal gating of OPN activity. In dual-tracer experiments undertaken in macaque monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), cMRF neurons labeled retrogradely from injections into RIP had numerous anterogradely labeled terminals closely associated with them following SC injections. This suggested the presence of an SC-cMRF-RIP pathway. Furthermore, anterograde tracers injected into the cMRF of other macaques labeled axonal terminals in RIP, confirming this cMRF projection. To determine whether the cMRF projections gate OPN activity, postembedding electron microscopic immunochemistry was performed on anterogradely labeled cMRF terminals with antibody to GABA or glycine. Of the terminals analyzed, 51.4% were GABA positive, 35.5% were GABA negative, and most contacted glycinergic cells. In summary, a trans-cMRF pathway connecting the SC to the RIP is present. This pathway contains inhibitory elements that could help gate omnipause activity and allow other tectal drives to induce the bursts of firing in premotor neurons that are necessary for saccades. The non-GABAergic cMRF terminals may derive from fixation units in the cMRF.
Collapse
|
49
|
Peel TR, Johnston K, Lomber SG, Corneil BD. Bilateral saccadic deficits following large and reversible inactivation of unilateral frontal eye field. J Neurophysiol 2013; 111:415-33. [PMID: 24155010 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00398.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Inactivation permits direct assessment of the functional contribution of a given brain area to behavior. Previous inactivation studies of the frontal eye field (FEF) have either used large permanent ablations or reversible pharmacological techniques that only inactivate a small volume of tissue. Here we evaluated the impact of large, yet reversible, FEF inactivation on visually guided, delayed, and memory-guided saccades, using cryoloops implanted in the arcuate sulcus. While FEF inactivation produced the expected triad of contralateral saccadic deficits (increased reaction time, decreased accuracy and peak velocity) and performance errors (neglect or misdirected saccades), we also found consistent increases in reaction times of ipsiversive saccades in all three tasks. In addition, FEF inactivation did not increase the proportion of premature saccades to ipsilateral targets, as was predicted on the basis of pharmacological studies. Consistent with previous studies, greater deficits accompanied saccades toward extinguished visual cues. Our results attest to the functional contribution of the FEF to saccades in both directions. We speculate that the comparative effects of different inactivation techniques relate to the volume of inactivated tissue within the FEF. Larger inactivation volumes may reveal the functional contribution of more sparsely distributed neurons within the FEF, such as those related to ipsiversive saccades. Furthermore, while focal FEF inactivation may disinhibit the mirroring site in the other FEF, larger inactivation volumes may induce broad disinhibition in the other FEF that paradoxically prolongs oculomotor processing via increased competitive interactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler R Peel
- The Brain and Mind Institute, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
50
|
Borra E, Gerbella M, Rozzi S, Luppino G. Projections from Caudal Ventrolateral Prefrontal Areas to Brainstem Preoculomotor Structures and to Basal Ganglia and Cerebellar Oculomotor Loops in the Macaque. Cereb Cortex 2013; 25:748-64. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|