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Braune K, Hussain S, Lal R. The First Regulatory Clearance of an Open-Source Automated Insulin Delivery Algorithm. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2023; 17:1139-1141. [PMID: 37051947 PMCID: PMC10563523 DOI: 10.1177/19322968231164166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Open-source Automated Insulin Dosing (OS-AID) algorithms are made publicly accessible so that every facet of their operation can be understood. Currently, commercial AID algorithms are kept proprietary trade secrets, despite the role they take in making life and death decisions for people living with type 1 diabetes. Loop was the second OS-AID algorithm, developed initially by Nate Racklyeft and Pete Schwamb. In 2018, the nonprofit organization Tidepool (Palo Alto, CA) announced the launch of the "Tidepool Loop" initiative with the aim to generate real-world evidence and obtain regulatory clearance. By the end of 2020, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration received Tidepool's application for an interoperable automated glycemic controller based on Loop. After 2 years, the FDA approved the Tidepool Loop on January 23, 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Braune
- Institute of Medical Informatics, Berlin Institute of Health at Charité, Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sufyan Hussain
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, King’s College London, London, UK
- Department of Diabetes, School of Cardiovascular, Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Rayhan Lal
- Department of Medicine, Divisions of Endocrinology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Divisions of Endocrinology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
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2
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Peacock S, Frizelle I, Hussain S. A Systematic Review of Commercial Hybrid Closed-Loop Automated Insulin Delivery Systems. Diabetes Ther 2023; 14:839-855. [PMID: 37017916 PMCID: PMC10126177 DOI: 10.1007/s13300-023-01394-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 04/06/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Several different forms of automated insulin delivery systems (AID systems) have recently been developed and are now licensed for type 1 diabetes (T1D). We undertook a systematic review of reported trials and real-world studies for commercial hybrid closed-loop (HCL) systems. METHODS Pivotal, phase III and real-world studies using commercial HCL systems that are currently approved for use in type 1 diabetes were reviewed with a devised protocol using the Medline database. RESULTS Fifty-nine studies were included in the systematic review (19 for 670G; 8 for 780G; 11 for Control-IQ; 14 for CamAPS FX; 4 for Diabeloop; and 3 for Omnipod 5). Twenty were real-world studies, and 39 were trials or sub-analyses. Twenty-three studies, including 17 additional studies, related to psychosocial outcomes and were analysed separately. CONCLUSIONS These studies highlighted that HCL systems improve time In range (TIR) and arouse minimal concerns around severe hypoglycaemia. HCL systems are an effective and safe option for improving diabetes care. Real-world comparisons between systems and their effects on psychological outcomes require further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Peacock
- Department of Diabetes, School of Cardiovascular, Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, 3rd Floor Lambeth Wing, St Thomas' Hospital, Westminster Bridge Road, London, SE1 7EH, UK
| | - Isolda Frizelle
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, 3rd Floor Lambeth Wing, St Thomas' Hospital, Westminster Bridge Road, London, SE1 7EH, UK
| | - Sufyan Hussain
- Department of Diabetes, School of Cardiovascular, Metabolic Medicine and Sciences, King's College London, London, UK.
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, King's College London, 3rd Floor Lambeth Wing, St Thomas' Hospital, Westminster Bridge Road, London, SE1 7EH, UK.
- Institute of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Obesity, King's Health Partners, London, UK.
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Zafar A, Lewis DM, Shahid A. Long-Term Glucose Forecasting for Open-Source Automated Insulin Delivery Systems: A Machine Learning Study with Real-World Variability Analysis. Healthcare (Basel) 2023; 11:healthcare11060779. [PMID: 36981436 PMCID: PMC10048652 DOI: 10.3390/healthcare11060779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucose forecasting serves as a backbone for several healthcare applications, including real-time insulin dosing in people with diabetes and physical activity optimization. This paper presents a study on the use of machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL) methods for predicting glucose variability (GV) in individuals with open-source automated insulin delivery systems (AID). A three-stage experimental framework is employed in this work to systematically implement and evaluate ML/DL methods on a large-scale diabetes dataset collected from individuals with open-source AID. The first stage involves data collection, the second stage involves data preparation and exploratory analysis, and the third stage involves developing, fine-tuning, and evaluating ML/DL models. The performance and resource costs of the models are evaluated alongside relative and proportional errors for 17 GV metrics. Evaluation of fine-tuned ML/DL models shows considerable accuracy in glucose forecasting and variability analysis up to 48 h in advance. The average MAE ranges from 2.50 mg/dL for long short-term memory models (LSTM) to 4.94 mg/dL for autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) models, and the RMSE ranges from 3.7 mg/dL for LSTM to 7.67 mg/dL for ARIMA. Model execution time is proportional to the amount of data used for training, with long short-term memory models having the lowest execution time but the highest memory consumption compared to other models. This work successfully incorporates the use of appropriate programming frameworks, concurrency-enhancing tools, and resource and storage cost estimators to encourage the sustainable use of ML/DL in real-world AID systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahtsham Zafar
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad 44000, Pakistan
| | | | - Arsalan Shahid
- CeADAR-Ireland's Centre for Applied AI, University College Dublin, D04 V2N9 Dublin, Ireland
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100 Years of insulin: A chemical engineering perspective. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-022-1308-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Lewis DM, Hussain S. Practical Guidance on Open Source and Commercial Automated Insulin Delivery Systems: A Guide for Healthcare Professionals Supporting People with Insulin-Requiring Diabetes. Diabetes Ther 2022; 13:1683-1699. [PMID: 35913655 PMCID: PMC9399331 DOI: 10.1007/s13300-022-01299-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
As increasing numbers of people with insulin-managed diabetes use automated insulin delivery (AID) systems or seek such technologies, healthcare providers are faced with a steep learning curve. Healthcare providers need to understand how to support these technologies to help inform shared decision making, discussing available options, implementing them in the clinical setting, and guiding users in special situations. At the same time, there is a growing diversity of commercial and open source automated insulin delivery systems that are evolving at a rapid pace. This practical guide seeks to provide a conversational framework for healthcare providers to first understand and then jointly assess AID system options with users and caregivers. Using this framework will help HCPs in learning how to evaluate potential new commercial or open source AID systems, while also providing a guide for conversations to help HCPs to assess the readiness and understanding of users for AID systems. The choice of an AID system is not as simple as whether the system is open source or commercially developed, and indeed there are multiple criteria to assess when choosing an AID system. Most importantly, the choices and preferences of the person living with diabetes should be at the center of any decision around the ideal automated insulin delivery system or any other diabetes technology. This framework highlights issues with AID use that may lead to burnout or perceived failures or may otherwise cause users to abandon the use of AID. It discusses the troubleshooting of basic AID system operation and discusses more advanced topics regarding how to maximize the time spent on AID systems, including how to optimize settings and behaviors for the best possible outcomes with AID technology for people with insulin-requiring diabetes. This practical approach article demonstrates how healthcare providers will benefit from assessing and better understanding all available AID system options to enable them to best support each individual.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sufyan Hussain
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy’s and St Thomas’ NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
- Department of Diabetes, King’s College London, London, UK
- Institute of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Obesity, King’s Health Partners, London, UK
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Braune K, Lal RA, Petruželková L, Scheiner G, Winterdijk P, Schmidt S, Raimond L, Hood KK, Riddell MC, Skinner TC, Raile K, Hussain S. Open-source automated insulin delivery: international consensus statement and practical guidance for health-care professionals. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2022; 10:58-74. [PMID: 34785000 PMCID: PMC8720075 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-8587(21)00267-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Open-source automated insulin delivery systems, commonly referred to as do-it-yourself automated insulin delivery systems, are examples of user-driven innovations that were co-created and supported by an online community who were directly affected by diabetes. Their uptake continues to increase globally, with current estimates suggesting several thousand active users worldwide. Real-world user-driven evidence is growing and provides insights into safety and effectiveness of these systems. The aim of this consensus statement is two-fold. Firstly, it provides a review of the current evidence, description of the technologies, and discusses the ethics and legal considerations for these systems from an international perspective. Secondly, it provides a much-needed international health-care consensus supporting the implementation of open-source systems in clinical settings, with detailed clinical guidance. This consensus also provides important recommendations for key stakeholders that are involved in diabetes technologies, including developers, regulators, and industry, and provides medico-legal and ethical support for patient-driven, open-source innovations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Braune
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Institute of Medical Informatics, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Rayhan A Lal
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Lenka Petruželková
- Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Motol, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Per Winterdijk
- Diabeter, Center for Pediatric and Adult Diabetes Care and Research, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | | | | | - Korey K Hood
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | | | - Timothy C Skinner
- Department of Psychology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark; La Trobe Rural Health School, La Trobe University, Bendigo, VIC, Australia
| | - Klemens Raile
- Department of Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sufyan Hussain
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy's and St Thomas' Hospital NHS Trust, London, UK; Department of Diabetes, King's College London, London, UK; Institute of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Obesity, King's Health Partners, London, UK.
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Thabit H, Lal R, Leelarathna L. Automated insulin dosing systems: Advances after a century of insulin. Diabet Med 2021; 38:e14695. [PMID: 34547133 PMCID: PMC8763058 DOI: 10.1111/dme.14695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The daily complexities of insulin therapy and glucose variability in type 1 diabetes still pose significant challenges, despite advancements in modern insulin analogues. Minimising hypoglycaemia and optimising time spent within target glucose range are recommended to reduce the risk of diabetes-related complications and distress. Access to structured education and adjuvant diabetes technologies, such as insulin pumps and glucose sensors, are recommended by National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) to enable people with type 1 diabetes achieve their glycaemic goals. One hundred years after the discovery of insulin, automated insulin dosing (AID, a.k.a. closed loop or artificial pancreas) systems are a reality with a number of systems available and being used in usual clinical practice. Evidence from randomised clinical trials and real-world prospective studies support efficacy, effectiveness and safety of AID systems. Qualitative evaluations reveal treatment satisfaction and positive effects on quality of life. Current insulin-only AID systems still require carbohydrate and activity announcement (hybrid closed loop) due to the inherent pharmacokinetic limitations of rapid-acting insulin analogies. Ultra-rapid acting insulin and adjunctive use of other therapies (e.g. glucagon, pramlitide) are being evaluated to achieve full closed loop. Open-source AID (OS-AID) systems have been developed by the diabetes community, driven by a desire for safety and to accelerate technological advancement. In addition to effectiveness and safety, real-world prospective studies suggest that OS-AID systems fulfil unmet needs of commercially approved systems. The development, ongoing challenges and expectations of AID are outlined in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hood Thabit
- Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
- Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Gastroenterology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Rayhan Lal
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine & Paediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Lalantha Leelarathna
- Manchester University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
- Division of Diabetes, Endocrinology and Gastroenterology, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Kirilmaz OB, Salegaonkar AR, Shiau J, Uzun G, Ko HS, Lee HF, Park S, Kwon G. Study of blood glucose and insulin infusion rate in real-time in diabetic rats using an artificial pancreas system. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254718. [PMID: 34270619 PMCID: PMC8284668 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial pancreas system (APS) is an emerging new treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study was to develop a rat APS as a research tool and demonstrate its application. We established a rat APS using Medtronic Minimed Pump 722, Medtronic Enlite sensor, and the open artificial pancreas system as a controller. We tested different dilutions of Humalog (100 units/ml) in saline ranged from 1:3 to 1:20 and determined that 1:7 dilution works well for rats with ~500g bodyweight. Blood glucose levels (BGL) of diabetic rats fed with chow diet (58% carbohydrate) whose BGL was managed by the closed-loop APS for the total duration of 207h were in euglycemic range (70-180 mg/dl) for 94.5% of the time with 2.1% and 3.4% for hyperglycemia (>180mg/dl) and hypoglycemia (<70 mg/dl), respectively. Diabetic rats fed with Sucrose pellets (94.8% carbohydrate) for the experimental duration of 175h were in euglycemic range for 61% of the time with 35% and 4% for hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia, respectively. Heathy rats fed with chow diet showed almost a straight line of BGL ~ 95 mg/dl (average 94.8 mg/dl) during the entire experimental period (281h), which was minimally altered by food intake. In the healthy rats, feeding sucrose pellets caused greater range of BGL in high and low levels but still within euglycemic range (99.9%). Next, to study how healthy and diabetic rats handle supra-physiological concentrations of glucose, we intraperitoneally injected various amounts of 50% dextrose (2, 3, 4g/kg) and monitored BGL. Duration of hyperglycemia after injection of 50% dextrose at all three different concentrations was significantly greater for healthy rats than diabetic rats, suggesting that insulin infusion by APS was superior in reducing BGL as compared to natural insulin released from pancreatic β-cells. Ex vivo studies showed that islets isolated from diabetic rats were almost completely devoid of pancreatic β-cells but with intact α-cells as expected. Lipid droplet deposition in the liver of diabetic rats was significantly lower with higher levels of triacylglyceride in the blood as compared to those of healthy rats, suggesting lipid metabolism was altered in diabetic rats. However, glycogen storage in the liver determined by Periodic acid-Schiff staining was not altered in diabetic rats as compared to healthy rats. A rat APS may be used as a powerful tool not only to study alterations of glucose and insulin homeostasis in real-time caused by diet, exercise, hormones, or antidiabetic agents, but also to test mathematical and engineering models of blood glucose prediction or new algorithms for closed-loop APS.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Blood Glucose/analysis
- Blood Glucose/drug effects
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/blood
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/chemically induced
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/diagnosis
- Diabetes Mellitus, Experimental/therapy
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/blood
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/chemically induced
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/diagnosis
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 1/therapy
- Glycated Hemoglobin/analysis
- Humans
- Infusions, Intravenous/instrumentation
- Infusions, Intravenous/methods
- Insulin/administration & dosage
- Male
- Pancreas, Artificial
- Rats
- Streptozocin/administration & dosage
- Streptozocin/toxicity
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Affiliation(s)
- Omer Batuhan Kirilmaz
- School of Engineering, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
| | | | - Justin Shiau
- School of Pharmacy, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Guney Uzun
- School of Engineering, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Hoo Sang Ko
- School of Engineering, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
| | - H. Felix Lee
- School of Engineering, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
| | - Sarah Park
- Research and Instructional Services, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Guim Kwon
- School of Pharmacy, Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, Illinois, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Lal RA, Maikawa CL, Lewis D, Baker SW, Smith AAA, Roth GA, Gale EC, Stapleton LM, Mann JL, Yu AC, Correa S, Grosskopf AK, Liong CS, Meis CM, Chan D, Garner JP, Maahs DM, Buckingham BA, Appel EA. Full closed loop open-source algorithm performance comparison in pigs with diabetes. Clin Transl Med 2021; 11:e387. [PMID: 33931977 PMCID: PMC8087942 DOI: 10.1002/ctm2.387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding how automated insulin delivery (AID) algorithm features impact glucose control under full closed loop delivery represents a critical step toward reducing patient burden by eliminating the need for carbohydrate entries at mealtimes. Here, we use a pig model of diabetes to compare AndroidAPS and Loop open‐source AID systems without meal announcements. Overall time‐in‐range (70–180 mg/dl) for AndroidAPS was 58% ± 5%, while time‐in‐range for Loop was 35% ± 5%. The effect of the algorithms on time‐in‐range differed between meals and overnight. During the overnight monitoring period, pigs had an average time‐in‐range of 90% ± 7% when on AndroidAPS compared to 22% ± 8% on Loop. Time‐in‐hypoglycemia also differed significantly during the lunch meal, whereby pigs running AndroidAPS spent an average of 1.4% (+0.4/−0.8)% in hypoglycemia compared to 10% (+3/−6)% for those using Loop. As algorithm design for closed loop systems continues to develop, the strategies employed in the OpenAPS algorithm (known as oref1) as implemented in AndroidAPS for unannounced meals may result in a better overall control for full closed loop systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayhan A Lal
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Caitlin L Maikawa
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | | | - Sam W Baker
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Anton A A Smith
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Gillie A Roth
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Emily C Gale
- Department of Biochemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Lyndsay M Stapleton
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Joseph L Mann
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Anthony C Yu
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Santiago Correa
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Abigail K Grosskopf
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Celine S Liong
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Catherine M Meis
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Doreen Chan
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Joseph P Garner
- Department of Comparative Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - David M Maahs
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Bruce A Buckingham
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Eric A Appel
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.,Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
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