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Shaw HE, Patel DR, Gannon BM, Fitzgerald LR, Carbonaro TM, Johnson CR, Fantegrossi WE. Phencyclidine-Like Abuse Liability and Psychosis-Like Neurocognitive Effects of Novel Arylcyclohexylamine Drugs of Abuse in Rodents. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 390:14-28. [PMID: 38272671 PMCID: PMC11192579 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Abuse of novel arylcyclohexylamines (ACX) poses risks for toxicities, including adverse neurocognitive effects. In vivo effects of ring-substituted analogs of phencyclidine (PCP), eticyclidine (PCE), and ketamine are understudied. Adult male National Institutes of Health Swiss mice were used to assess locomotor effects of PCP and its 3-OH, 3-MeO, 3-Cl, and 4-MeO analogs, PCE and its 3-OH and 3-MeO analogs, and ketamine and its deschloro and 2F-deschloro analogs, in comparison with those of methamphetamine (METH), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and two benzofuran analogs of MDMA. PCP-like interoceptive effects for all of these ACXs were determined using a food-reinforced drug discrimination procedure in adult male Sprague Dawley rats. A novel operant assay of rule-governed behavior incorporating aspects of attentional set-shifting was used to profile psychosis-like neurocognitive effects of PCP and 3-Cl-PCP in rats, in comparison with cocaine and morphine. PCP-like ACXs were more effective locomotor stimulants than the amphetamines, PCE-like ACXs were as effective as the amphetamines, and ketamine-like ACXs were less effective than the amphetamines. Addition of -Cl, -OH, or -OMe at the 3-position on the aromatic ring did not impact locomotor effectiveness, but addition of -OMe at the 4-position reduced locomotor effectiveness. Lethal effects were induced by drugs with -OH at the 3-position or -OMe at the 3- or 4-position. All novel ACXs substituted at least partially for PCP, and PCP and 3-Cl-PCP elicited dose-dependent psychosis-like neurocognitive deficits in the rule-governed behavior task not observed with cocaine or morphine. Novel ACXs exhibit substantial abuse liability and toxicities not necessarily observed with their parent drugs. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Novel arylcyclohexylamine analogs of PCP, PCE, and ketamine are appearing on the illicit market, and abuse of these drugs poses risks for toxicities, including adverse neurocognitive effects. These studies demonstrate that the novel ACXs exhibit PCP-like abuse liability in the drug discrimination assay, elicit varied locomotor stimulant and lethal effects in mice, and induce psychosis-like neurocognitive effects in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Shaw
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Dylan R Patel
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Brenda M Gannon
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Lauren R Fitzgerald
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Theresa M Carbonaro
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - Chad R Johnson
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
| | - William E Fantegrossi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, Arkansas (H.E.S., D.R.P., B.M.G., L.R.F., W.E.F.); Drug Enforcement Administration, United States Department of Justice, Washington, DC (T.M.C.); and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland School of Pharmacy, Baltimore, Maryland (C.R.J.)
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Mohr ALA, Logan BK, Fogarty MF, Krotulski AJ, Papsun DM, Kacinko SL, Huestis MA, Ropero-Miller JD. Reports of Adverse Events Associated with Use of Novel Psychoactive Substances, 2017-2020: A Review. J Anal Toxicol 2022; 46:e116-e185. [PMID: 35445267 PMCID: PMC9282356 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkac023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An important role of modern forensic and clinical toxicologists is to monitor the adverse events of novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Following a prior review from 2013 to 2016, this critical literature review analyzes and evaluates published case reports for NPS from January 2017 through December 2020. The primary objective of this study is to assist in the assessment and interpretation of these cases as well as provide references for confirmation methods. Chemistry, pharmacology, adverse events and user profiles (e.g., polypharmacy) for NPS are provided including case history, clinical symptoms, autopsy findings and analytical results. Literature reviews were performed in PubMed and Google Scholar for publications using search terms such as NPS specific names, general terms (e.g., 'designer drugs' and 'novel psychoactive substances'), drug classes (e.g., 'designer stimulants') and outcome-based terms (e.g., 'overdose' and 'death'). Government and website drug surveillance databases and abstracts published by professional forensic science organizations were also searched. Toxicological data and detailed case information were extracted, tabulated, analyzed and organized by drug category. Case reports included overdose fatalities (378 cases), clinical treatment and hospitalization (771 cases) and driving under the influence of drugs (170 cases) for a total of 1,319 cases providing details of adverse events associated with NPS. Confirmed adverse events with associated toxidromes of more than 60 NPS were reported including synthetic cannabinoid, NPS stimulant, NPS hallucinogen, NPS benzodiazepine and NPS opioid cases. Fifty of these NPS were reported for the first time in January 2017 through December 2020 as compared to the previous 4 years surveyed. This study provides insight and context of case findings described in the literature and in digital government surveillance databases and websites during a recent 4-year period. This review will increase the awareness of adverse events associated with NPS use to better characterize international emerging drug threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda L A Mohr
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | - Barry K Logan
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
- NMS Labs, 200 Welsh Rd, Horsham, PA 19044, USA
| | - Melissa F Fogarty
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | | | | | - Marilyn A Huestis
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education at the Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, 2300 Stratford Ave, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
- Institute of Emerging Health Professions, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA
| | - Jeri D Ropero-Miller
- RTI International, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 East Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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Feeney W, Moorthy AS, Sisco E. Spectral trends in GC-EI-MS data obtained from the SWGDRUG mass spectral library and literature: A resource for the identification of unknown compounds. Forensic Chem 2020; 31:10.1016/j.forc.2022.100459. [PMID: 36578315 PMCID: PMC9793444 DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Rapid identification of new or emerging psychoactive substances remains a critical challenge in forensic drug chemistry laboratories. Current analytical protocols are well-designed for confirmation of known substances yet struggle when new compounds are encountered. Many laboratories initially attempt to classify new compounds using gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). Though there is a large body of research focused on the analysis of illicit substances with GC-EI-MS, there is little high-level discussion of mass spectral trends for different classes of drugs. This manuscript compiles literature information and performs simple exploratory analyses on evaluated GC-EI-MS data to investigate mass spectral trends for illicit substance classes. Additionally, this work offers other important aspects: brief discussions of how each class of drugs is used; illustrations of EI mass spectra with proposed structures of commonly observed ions; and summaries of mass spectral trends that can help an analyst classify new illicit compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Feeney
- Corresponding author at: Surface and Trace Chemical Analysis Group, Material Measurement Laboratory, 100 Bureau Drive, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA. (W. Feeney)
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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Oldenhof S, Ten Pierick A, Bruinsma J, Eustace S, Hulshof J, van den Berg J, Hoitink M. Identification of a novel fentanyl analog: p-Hydroxy-butyrylfentanyl. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:152-155. [PMID: 31518047 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2019] [Revised: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Stephen Eustace
- TU Delft/Department of Biotechnology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | | | | | - Marnix Hoitink
- Netherlands Forensic Institute, The Hague, the Netherlands
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