Warmer Individuals Get More Help: The Influence of Stereotypes and Empathy on Moral Decision-Making

The processing of moral decision-making is influenced by both cognitive and emotional systems, making it worth exploring exactly how each plays a role in the process of individual moral decision-making. In this study, 160 participants with either high or low empathy traits (80 each, as determined by the Interpersonal Response Index Inventory) completed a moral decision-making task regarding whether to help others (stereotyped as high warmth-high competence, high warmth-low competence, low warmth-high competence, low warmth-low competence) at the expense of themselves. The intent was to explore the influence of stereotypes and empathy traits on moral decision-making. The results showed that: (1) participants were more willing to help individuals with high warmth than those with high competence, showing a clear "primacy of warmth effect"; (2) this effect was weakened in participants with high empathy traits in comparison to those with low empathy traits, as their willingness to help individuals with low warmth was significantly higher than that of participants with low empathy traits. The results suggest that stereotypes about warmth and competence moderate altruistic tendencies in moral decision-making and that this moderation is more pronounced in individuals with low empathy traits than in those with high empathy traits.

Appearing competent or moral? The role of organizational goals in the evaluation of candidates

The Big Two theoretical framework suggests that two traits, namely morality and competence, govern social judgments of individuals and that morality shows a primacy effect over competence because it has more diagnostic value. In this study we tested the primacy effect of morality in the workplace by examining how instrumental or relational goals of organizations might influence the importance of morality or competence of candidates during the hiring process. We hypothesized that the primacy effect of morality might hold when organizational goals are relational, but it might get reversed when organizational goals are instrumental. Supporting our hypothesis, in a field study and two experiments (both preregistered) we found that people perceive moral candidates as more appropriate for recruitment when an organization prioritizes relational goals (Studies 1, 2, and 3). In contrast, people perceive competent candidates as more appropriate for recruitment when an organization prioritizes instrumental goals (Studies 1 and 2). Perceived appropriateness of a candidate, in turn, predicts a stronger intention to recruit a candidate (Studies 2 and 3). These results provide evidence for a reversal of the primacy effect of morality in a work setting, and illuminate the important role of organizational goals in social judgments.

Are talented people more virtuous in the eyes of others? Positive effects of competence on perceived morality

Existing research on competence and morality focuses on their role in impression formation, overlooking their impact on each other. In five studies, we explored whether a target person's competence influences perceived morality of the target through interpersonal attraction. The results showed that perceived competence of a target individual was positively correlated with interpersonal attraction, which in turn positively correlated with morality (Study 1). Using an experimental design, we further found that competent individuals were considered more attractive, making them being perceived more moral than incompetent ones (Studies 2-4). In addition, an initially immoral individual was perceived as being moral when he was described as highly competent (Study 3) whereas an initially moral individual was perceived as being immoral when he was described as having low competence (Study 4). These findings were not completely accounted for by the halo effect (Study 5). The results supported that competence information promotes perceptions of morality in person perception.

Nonverbal Immediacy Mediates the Relationship Between Interpersonal Motives and Belongingness

While belongingness is a predictor of mental and physical health, the lack of social bonds is an issue for many people in occidental countries. This issue calls for global and affordable solutions. In this study, we notably investigated (a) the presumed positive relationships between agentic and communal interactional motives and belongingness, and (b) the mediating role of self-reported non-verbal immediacy-an indicator of availability to interact-in these relationships. Cross-sectional and longitudinal data were collected by means of questionnaires to test these hypotheses (N _{Crossectional} = 344; N _Longitudinal = 126) using the General Belongingness Scale, the Non-verbal Immediacy Scale, and the Bem Sex Role Inventory. Results supported the hypotheses: Interpersonal motives and non-verbal immediacy are associated cross-sectionally to belongingness, non-verbal immediacy mediates the interpersonal motives-belongingness relationship and positive changes in non-verbal immediacy are also related to increased belongingness. Practical and research implications are discussed.

More guilty if woman: The role of gender and causal attribution in political scandals' impact

Political scandals can have a great impact for the perpetrator, but negative consequences may vary considerably depending on such factors as personal characteristics of the involved political actors or citizens' expectations. The present study investigated the effect of the gender of the politician involved in different kinds of scandals deriving from the transgression of gender role-based expectations and the role of participants' attribution of responsibility (internal vs. external) on their evaluation of the perpetrator. Results showed that participants did not express different evaluations of the female versus male politician when their behavior testified to a lack of qualities stereotypically associated to men and women. But when participants attributed the responsibility of the scandal to the perpetrator, women were punished more severely than their male colleagues. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

The Effects of Counterfactual Attacks on the Morality and Leadership of Different Professionals

Abstract. Past research has offered contrasting results regarding the effects of attacks on social judgments. In three experiments, we investigated the effects of counterfactual (“If only…”) and non-counterfactual attacks on the morality versus leadership of politicians versus entrepreneurs. First, participants rated morality as the most desirable, but least typical dimension of politicians, and leadership as the most desirable and most typical dimension of entrepreneurs (Study 1). Then, counterfactual attacks led to poorer evaluation of the attacked target and better evaluation of the attacking source as compared to non-counterfactual attacks, especially when counterfactuals were focused on the most desirable dimension for the professional category of the attacked target (Study 2). Similar results emerged when the typicality of the attacked dimension was manipulated (Study 3). Discussion focuses on the higher success of attacks on desirable personality dimensions and of counterfactual attacks as compared to other attacks.

Some like it hot: How voters’ attitude towards disrespect in politics affects their judgments of candidates

In public debates, political candidates often attack their opponents disrespectfully. Research revealed mixed effects of such behavior on voters’ candidate judgments. In order to understand these results, we argue that it is necessary to consider onlookers’ general attitude towards disrespect in politics. Across an experimental design (N = 229) and a field study (N = 199), we found that voters who consider disrespect a “necessary evil” in the political arena judged disrespectful politicians more favorably with regard to both communion and agency. Furthermore, they displayed a higher intention to vote as well as actually voted more in favor of disrespectful candidates compared to voters who disapproved of disrespect in politics. The results show that the success of a disrespectful communication strategy substantively depends on the audience.

How Orthogonal Are the Big Two of Social Perception? On the Curvilinear Relation Between Agency and Communion

Humans make sense of their social environment by forming impressions of others that allow predicting others’ actions. In this process of social perception, two types of information carry pivotal importance: other entities’ communion (i.e., warmth and trustworthiness) and agency (i.e., status and power). Although commonly thought of as orthogonal dimensions, we propose that these Big Two of social perception are curvilinearly related. Specifically, as we delineate from four different theoretical explanations, impressions of communion should peak at average agency, while entities too high or too low on agency should be perceived as low on communion. We show this pattern for social groups across one novel and five previously published data sets, including a meta-analysis of the most comprehensive data collection in the group perception literature, consisting of 36 samples from more than 20 countries. Addressing the generalizability of this curvilinear relation, we then report recent and unpublished experiments establishing the effect for the perception of individuals and animals. On the basis of the proposed curvilinear relation, we revisit the primacy of processing communion (rather than agency) information. Finally, we discuss the possibility of a more general curvilinear relation between communion and dimensions other than agency.

Impressive Words: Linguistic Predictors of Public Approval of the U.S. Congress

What type of language makes the most positive impression within a professional setting? Is competent/agentic language or warm/communal language more effective at eliciting social approval? We examined this basic social cognitive question in a real world context using a “big data” approach—the recent record-low levels of public approval of the U.S. Congress. Using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC), we text analyzed all 123+ million words spoken by members of the U.S. House of Representatives during floor debates between 1996 and 2014 and compared their usage of various classes of words to their public approval ratings over the same time period. We found that neither agentic nor communal language positively predicted public approval. However, this may be because communion combines two disparate social motives (belonging and helping). A follow-up analysis found that the helping form of communion positively predicted public approval, and did so more strongly than did agentic language. Next, we conducted an exploratory analysis, examining which of the 63 standard LIWC categories predict public approval. We found that the public approval of Congress was highest when politicians used tentative language, expressed both positive emotion and anxiety, and used human words, numbers, prepositions, numbers, and avoided conjunctions and the use of second-person pronouns. These results highlight the widespread primacy of warmth over competence as the primary dimensions of social cognition.

The costs and benefits of perceived sexual agency for men and women

Women are less likely than men to engage in sexually agentic behavior (e.g., initiating sexual encounters), despite the benefits associated with sexual agency (Kiefer & Sanchez, 2007). Two studies examined possible explanations, related to person perception, for gender differences in sexually agentic behavior. In Study 1, participants viewed the dating profiles of targets who were either high or low on sexual agency and rated sexually agentic targets as more desirable but also riskier sexual partners (i.e., having more previous sexual partners), as well as more selfish partners overall. Participants believed the agentic female targets to be the most desirable but also to have the highest number of previous sexual partners. In Study 2, female participants weighed the importance and consequences of sexual agency differently than male participants. Based on the two studies, we suggest that although men and women are judged similarly for sexual agency, women may refrain from sexual agency because they view the traits and characteristics that are perceived to go hand in hand with sexual agency more negatively.

The Effects of Counterfactual Attacks on Social Judgments

Two experiments were conducted to compare the effects of different styles of verbal criticism (factual vs. counterfactual) on the perceptions of target, source, and quality of the attack. Counterfactual attacks resulted in more negative overall judgment of the target and ratings of the target’s morality than either factual attacks or no attack. Counterfactual attacks were also rated more positively than factual attacks, and the source of the counterfactual attack was rated as being less biased against the target. Regression analyses confirmed that the observed effect on overall judgment was mediated by the perceived bias of the source. The greater effectiveness of counterfactual attacks was moderated by awareness of prior hostility of the source of the attack toward the target.

Individuals’ and Groups’ Motivation to Restore Their Impaired Identity Dimensions Following Conflicts

Previous theories concerning the “Big Two” dimensions have focused on people’s perceptions and judgments of various social targets. The research presented in this article extends current theorizing by shedding light on how the targets of these judgments respond, in terms of motivational outcomes, to being perceived as high or low on agency or communion. Using the “needs-based model of reconciliation” we argue that, following transgressions, victimized or disadvantaged individuals or groups experience threats to their agency dimension of identity, whereas the perpetrating or advantaged individuals or groups experience threats to their communion identity dimension. We review empirical evidence suggesting that the experience of these threats leads to enhanced motivation to restore these impaired identity dimensions (i.e., reaffirm the agency or communion of oneself or one’s ingroup). We discuss how insights from reconciliation research can enhance our understanding of the Big Two dimensions and vice versa and point to the potential for cross fertilization.

The “Big Two” in Political Communication

In two experimental studies (conducted in Britain and Italy), participants read about a politician answering to leadership- versus morality-related allegations using either downward counterfactuals (“things could have been worse, if ...”) or upward counterfactuals (“things could have been better, if ...”). Downward messages increased the perception of the politician’s leadership, while both downward and upward messages increased morality perception. Political sophistication moderated the effect of message direction, with downward messages increasing perceived morality in low sophisticates and upward messages increasing perceived morality in high sophisticates. In the latter group, the acknowledgment of an intent to take responsibility mediated morality judgment. Results were consistent across different countries, highlighting previously unexplored effects of communication on the perception of the “Big Two” dimensions.

The Density of the Big Two

Communion and agency are fundamental dimensions of social perception and judgment. Previous research revealed a primacy of communion in social information processing. The present research investigates whether there is a similar asymmetry in the “density” of communion and agency. We test whether communal content is more densely clustered in memory than agentic content, that is, more similar to other communal content than agentic content is similar to other agentic content. Three multidimensional scaling studies address this question and suggest an interaction with valence: While negative communal content is more densely clustered than negative agentic content, we find no differences in density between positive communal and positive agentic content. In addition to enhancing our understanding of the fundamental dimensions and their structural representation, this research might open a new perspective on old questions regarding person perception and implicit personality theories.

Accentuating Your Masculine Side

Recent research investigating self-judgment has shown that people are more likely to base their evaluations of self on agency-related traits than communion-related traits. In the present research, we tested the hypothesis that agency-related traits dominate self-evaluation by expanding the purview of the fundamental dimensions to consider characteristics typically studied in the gender-role literature, but that nevertheless should be related to agency and communion. Further, we carried out these tests on two samples from China, a cultural context that, relative to many Western countries, emphasizes the interpersonal or communion dimension. Despite the differences in traits used and cultural samples studied, the findings generally supported the agency dominates self-esteem perspective, albeit with some additional findings in Study 2. The findings are discussed with regard to the influence of social norms and the types of inferences people are able to draw about themselves given such norms.

Primacy of warmth versus competence: a motivated bias?

In line with previous results that challenge the traditional primacy of warmth over competence in outgroup perception, we propose to bridge elements from stereotype content model and social identity theory: Perceivers will use the competence and warmth dimensions differentially when interpreting higher or lower status outgroup members' behavior. We test the hypothesis that the dimension that is less favorable for the outgroup and more favorable for the ingroup will be used. In particular, we investigate whether the warmth dimension would better predict the interpretation of higher status outgroup members' behavior than the competence dimension, whereas the competence dimension would better predict the interpretation of lower status outgroup members' behavior than the warmth dimension. Two studies separately test these effects. Results suggest the existence of a motivated bias in interpreting outgroup members' behavior, especially when there is ingroup identification.

The effect of stereotype content on anger versus contempt in “day-to-day” conflicts

Depending on how involved parties appraise day-to-day conflicts, they either may feel angry or contemptuous toward the other party, which, in turn, may result in stronger confronting or avoiding intentions. In this paper we investigated how the content of stereotypes associated with the group to which an outgroup perpetrator belongs affects appraisals, emotions, and behavior. In two experiments, we demonstrated that stereotyping an outgroup as less warm resulted in increased feelings of anger, and tendencies to react forcefully toward an outgroup party in a conflict. Specifically, this effect of low stereotype warmth was explained by increased appraisals of negative intentions. Stereotyping an outgroup as less competent in the same situation elicited increased feelings of contempt, and tendencies to avoid an outgroup party in a conflict. This effect of stereotype incompetence was due to decreased appraisals of control over the other party.

Are Some Rabbits More Competent and Warm Than Others?

Two theories are compared with respect to their ability to explain the emergence of two dimensions in psychological descriptions of human beings. For psychological realism, the two dimensions are assumed to be two realities existing in a descriptive (quasiscientific) psychology. Psychological descriptions are considered to be real descriptions of people’s personality; for the evaluative approach, the two dimensions are seen as two aspects of people’s social value. The psychological descriptions are considered direct expressions of a person’s social value. The results of three studies in which students were asked to give psychological descriptions of pet rabbits supported the evaluative approach. They showed (1) that a human psychological reality is not a prerequisite for the emergence of either dimension, and (2) that information about the social value of rabbits (social desirability and social utility) is enough to make the two dimensions appear.