Electrochemical Determination of Dextromethorphan on Reduced Graphene Oxide Modified Screen-Printed Electrode after Electromembrane Extraction

Single-laser fabrication of nitrogen-doped porous graphene from chitosan/polyimide for the electrochemical determination of dextromethorphan

A simple and effective disposable electrode was developed for the electrochemical detection of dextromethorphan (DEX) in pharmaceutical and forensic samples. Polyimide was treated with chitosan before being used to create the electrode through single-laser fabrication of nitrogen-doped porous graphene. The laser power and speed were optimized to achieve optimal performance. Scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive X-ray, Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy were used to characterize the morphology of fabricated materials. The electrochemical characterization of electrodes was studied by using cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The electrochemical behavior of DEX was investigated using cyclic voltammetry and analytical measurements were performed using differential pulse voltammetry. Differential pulse voltammetry was optimized in terms of buffer type, buffer pH, potential pulse, time pulse, potential step, scan rate, deposition potential, and deposition time. In the optimal condition, two linear ranges were observed, ranging from 2.5 to 25 μmol L-1 and 25 to 400 μmol L-1. The limit of detection (LOD) was 1.8 μmol L-1. The developed method produced a statistically significant agreement with high-performance liquid chromatography for the determination of DEX.

Ultrasensitive First Derivative Synchronous Spectrofluorimetric Approach for the Concurrent Quantification of COVID-19-2024 Treatment Combination Dextromethorphan and Guaifenesin in Different Matrices: Compliance With Greenness and Practicality Metrics

The COVID-19-2024 is one of the most frequently occurring illnesses worldwide. One of the symptoms of COVID-19 is sever cough. This study presents a novel first derivative synchronous spectrofluorimetric method that is rapid, highly sensitive, cost-effective, and environmentally safe for determining two coformulated anticough drugs, dextromethorphan and guaifenesin, simultaneously. At 281.5 and 297.4 nm, respectively, the fluorescence of guaifenesin and dextromethorphan was measured. The dilution solvent was methanol, and the wavelength difference (Δλ) was 20 nm. The method verified good linearity (r > 0.999) for both dextromethorphan (10.0-200.0 ng mL-1) and guaifenesin (30.0-800.0 ng mL-1) within the intended concentration ranges. The findings showed that the suggested method had a high degree of sensitivity, with detection limits for guaifenesin and dextromethorphan being 8.64 and 1.81 ng mL-1, respectively. For both analytes, the intraday and interday precisions were less than 0.81% RSD. With low percentage RSD values and high percentage recoveries, the developed method was successfully used to estimate the aforementioned medications in dosage forms and human plasma samples simultaneously. The CACI tool evaluated the method's economy, usefulness, and applicability, whereas MoGAPI and AGREE metrics verified its exceptional eco-friendliness and greenness. The procedure was thoroughly verified in compliance with ICH Q2 (R2) standards.

Ultrasensitive analysis of the commonly abused CNS antitussive, dextromethorphan in biological fluids and dosage forms using a novel micellar-sensitized spectrofluorimetric approach: Compliance with greenness and blueness metrics

The current study introduces the first micellar-enhanced spectrofluorimetric approach for the estimation of the commonly abused CNS antitussive, dextromethorphan (DXM) in its syrup and biological fluids. A micellar solution of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) containing DXM showed high native fluorescence emission at 305 nm following excitation at 224 nm. Using SDS as a micellar system resulted in about a 2.5-fold increase in the drug's fluorescence intensity and quantum yield as well as the sensitivity of the approach. A thorough investigation was conducted into the experimental factors affecting the studied drug's spectrofluorimetric behavior. Additionally, the quantum yield of DXM was calculated, and it was found to reach up to 22 %. A calibration plot with a straight line was produced across the concentration range of 10.0-200.0 ng/mL. The suggested approach demonstrated excellent sensitivity down to the nanogram level, with 1.80 ng/mL for the detection limit and 5.47 ng/mL for the quantification limit. The drug under study was successfully analyzed in syrup using the designed approach, which yielded low %RSD values (≤0.882) and high %recoveries (99.20-101.00). The efficacy of the suggested fluorimetric technique in detecting DXM in human plasma and urine samples has been demonstrated with excellent recovery (98.12-101.35) and %RSD (≤1.39) values owing to its high sensitivity and selectivity. As DXM is one of the most commonly abused CNS antitussives, the capacity of the proposed method for its analysis in biological fluids can provide further insights for monitoring its potential abuse. The excellent greenness and eco-friendliness of the method were confirmed using GAPI and AGREE metrics, while the BAGI tool assessed its economy, practicality, and applicability. The method was fully validated according to ICH Q2 (R2) guidelines.

A Mini Review on Electrochemical Nano-biosensors in Detection of Drugs/Pesticides

Abstract

In last few years, sensing of molecules has gained a huge attention of scientists and researchers. Small molecules (drugs, pesticides, and others) are being consumed directly or indirectly by us in our daily life. Often, these molecules enter the environment and interact with different non-target organisms. Consumption of drugs/pesticides emerged as a major concern for public health, environment, ground-water and agricultural soil. Pesticides can have odd impacts such as degradation of soil properties, environmental pollution, pollution of groundwater as well as the consumption of unwanted drugs can have serious health impacts. Therefore, the sensing of drugs/pesticides plays an important role in detecting and preventing the unwanted usage of drugs/pesticides. Quantitative and qualitative determination of pesticides and drugs can be achieved using electrochemical techniques. This review offers a concise examination of the literature about the electrochemical sensing of drugs and pesticides. The review provides a comprehensive summary of different electrochemical investigations and outlines the reported analytical performance metrics, including limits of detection and linearity ranges. Furthermore, it underscores the progress made in pesticide detection using electrochemical methods for the selected compounds, highlighting the challenges ahead and emphasizing the necessary efforts to develop sensors suitable for in-situ applications.

Graphical Abstract

Application of Microextraction-Based Techniques for Screening-Controlled Drugs in Forensic Context-A Review

The analysis of controlled drugs in forensic matrices, i.e., urine, blood, plasma, saliva, and hair, is one of the current hot topics in the clinical and toxicological context. The use of microextraction-based approaches has gained considerable notoriety, mainly due to the great simplicity, cost-benefit, and environmental sustainability. For this reason, the application of these innovative techniques has become more relevant than ever in programs for monitoring priority substances such as the main illicit drugs, e.g., opioids, stimulants, cannabinoids, hallucinogens, dissociative drugs, and related compounds. The present contribution aims to make a comprehensive review on the state-of-the art advantages and future trends on the application of microextraction-based techniques for screening-controlled drugs in the forensic context.

Electrochemical carbon based nanosensors: A promising tool in pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis

Nanotechnology has become very popular in the sensor fields in recent times. It is thought that the utilization of such technologies, as well as the use of nanosized materials, could well have beneficial effects for the performance of sensors. Nano-sized materials have been shown to have a number of novel and interesting physical and chemical properties. Low-dimensional nanometer-sized materials and systems have defined a new research area in condensed-matter physics within past decades. Apart from the aforesaid categories of materials, there exist various materials of different types for fabricating nanosensors. Carbon is called as a unique element, due to its magnificent applications in many areas. Carbon is an astonishing element that can be found many forms including graphite, diamond, fullerenes, and graphene. This review provides an overview of some of the important and recent developments brought about by the application of carbon based nanostructures to nanotechnology for both chemical and biological sensor development and their application in pharmaceutical and biomedical area.

Electrically stimulated liquid-based extraction techniques in bioanalysis

Sample preparation is a vital and inseparable part of an analytical procedure. This issue has motivated the analytical research community around the world to develop new, fast and cost-effective extraction methods which can eliminate interfering substances, provide high preconcentration factors and increase the determination sensitivity. Electrical field induced extraction technique is a topic that has received major attention in recent years. This fact can be attributed to the considerable advantages provided by imposition of an electrical driving force especially control of different properties of an extraction system such as selectivity, cleanup, rate and efficiency. In this review, focus is centered on the electrical field induced liquid phase extraction techniques and their potential for bioanalysis.

Carbon nanotubes and graphene modified screen-printed carbon electrodes as sensitive sensors for the determination of phytochelatins in plants using liquid chromatography with amperometric detection

Nanomaterials are of great interest for the development of electrochemical sensors. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes and graphene were used to modify the working electrode surface of different screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) with the aim of improving the sensitivity of the SPCE and comparing it with the conventional glassy carbon electrode. To assay the usability of these sensors, a HPLC methodology with amperometric detection was developed to analyze several phytochelatins in plants of Hordeum vulgare and Glycine max treated with Hg(II) or Cd(II) giving detection limits in the low μmolL(-1) range. Phytochelatins are low molecular weight peptides with the general structure γ-(Glu-Cys)n-Gly (n=2-5) which are synthesized in plants in the presence of heavy metal ions. These compounds can chelate heavy metal ions by the formation of complexes which, are transported to the vacuoles, where the toxicity is not threatening. For this reason phytochelatins are essential in the detoxification of heavy metal ions in plants. The developed HPLC method uses a mobile phase of 1% of formic acid in water with KNO3 or NaCl (pH=2.00) and 1% of formic acid in acetonitrile. Electrochemical detection at different carbon-based electrodes was used. Among the sensors tested, the conventional glassy carbon electrode offers the best sensitivity although modification improves the sensitivity of the SPCE. Glutathione and several isoforms of phytochelatin two were found in plant extracts of both studied species.

The potential of electromembrane extraction for bioanalytical applications

Modern requirements in the field of bioanalysis often involve miniaturized, high-throughput sample preparation techniques that consume low amounts of both sample and potentially hazardous organic solvents. Electromembrane extraction is one technique that meets several of these requirements. In this principle analytes are selectively extracted from a biological matrix, through a supported liquid membrane and into an aqueous acceptor solution. The whole extraction process is facilitated by an electric field across the supported liquid membrane, which greatly reduces the extraction time. This review will give a thorough overview of recent advances in bioanalytical applications involving electromembrane extraction, and discuss both possibilities and challenges of the technique in a bioanalytical setting.