Development of an active packaging system containing zinc oxide nanoparticles for the extension of chicken fillet shelf life

Review of Bio-Based Biodegradable Polymers: Smart Solutions for Sustainable Food Packaging

Conventional passive packaging plays a crucial role in food manufacturing by protecting foods from various external influences. Most packaging materials are polymer-based plastics derived from fossil carbon sources, which are favored for their versatility, aesthetic appeal, and cost-effectiveness. However, the extensive use of these materials poses significant environmental challenges due to their fossil-based origins and persistence in the environment. Global plastic consumption for packaging is expected to nearly triple by 2060, exacerbating the ecological crisis. Moreover, globalization has increased access to a diverse range of foods from around the world, heightening the importance of packaging in providing healthier and safer foods with extended shelf life. In response to these challenges, there is a growing shift to eco-friendly active packaging that not only protects but also preserves the authentic qualities of food, surpassing the roles of conventional passive packaging. This article provides a comprehensive review on the viability, benefits, and challenges of implementing bio-based biodegradable polymers in active food packaging, with the dual goals of environmental sustainability and extending food shelf life.

Potential of ZnO nanoparticles for multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli having CRISPR-Cas from poultry market in Lahore

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Apart from known factors such as irrational use of antibiotics and horizontal gene transfer, it is now reported that clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) are also associated with increased antimicrobial resistance. Hence, it is critical to explore alternatives to antibiotics to control economic losses. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine not only the association of CRISPR-Cas system with antibiotic resistance but also the potential of Zinc Oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) for avian pathogenic Escherichia coli (APEC) isolated from poultry market Lahore.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Samples (n = 100) were collected from live bird markets of Lahore, and isolates were confirmed as Escherichia coli (E. coli) using the Remel One fast kit, and APEC was identified using PCR. The antibiotic resistance pattern in APEC was determined using the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), followed by genotypic confirmation of antibiotic-resistant genes using the PCR. The CRISPR-Cas system was also identified in multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates, and its association with antibiotics was determined using qRT-PCR. The potential of ZnO-NPs was evaluated for multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates by MIC.

RESULTS

All isolates of APEC were resistant to nalidixic acid, whereas 95% were resistant to chloramphenicol and 89% were resistant to streptomycin. Nineteen MDR APEC were found in the present study and the CRISPR-Cas system was detected in all of these MDR isolates. In addition, an increased expression of CRISPR-related genes was observed in the standard strain and MDR isolates of APEC. ZnO-NPs inhibited the growth of resistant isolates.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings showed the presence of the CRISPR-Cas system in MDR strains of APEC, along with the potential of ZnO-NPs for a possible solution to proceed. This highlights the importance of regulating antimicrobial resistance in poultry to reduce potential health consequences.

Application of nano-ZnO in the food preservation industry: antibacterial mechanisms, influencing factors, intelligent packaging, preservation film and safety

In recent years, how to improve the functional performance of food packaging materials has received increasing attention. One common inorganic material, nanometer zinc oxide (ZnO-NPs), has garnered significant attention due to its excellent antibacterial properties and sensitivity. Consequently, ZnO-NP-based functional packaging materials are rapidly developing in the food industry. However, there is currently a lack of comprehensive and systematic reviews on the use of ZnO-NPs as functional fillers in food packaging. In this review, we introduced the characteristics and antibacterial mechanism of ZnO-NPs, and paid attention to the factors affecting the antibacterial activity of ZnO-NPs. Furthermore, we systematically analyzed the application of intelligent packaging and antibacterial packaging containing ZnO-NPs in the food industry. At the same time, this paper also thoroughly investigated the impact of ZnO-NPs on various properties including thickness, moisture resistance, water vapor barrier, mechanical properties, optical properties, thermal properties and microstructure of food packaging materials. Finally, we discussed the migration and safety of ZnO-NPs in packaging materials. ZnO-NPs are safe and have negligible migration rates, simultaneously their sensitivity and antibacterial properties can be used to detect the quality changes of food during storage and extend its shelf life.

Effect of catalyst carrier type and concentration on oxygen-scavenging property and characteristics of iron-based active films

The presence of oxygen can degrade food quality, making it essential to remove oxygen from the packaging headspace of food products. In this study, the effect of catalyst type and concentration on iron-based oxygen-scavenging films was investigated to enhance the oxygen removal efficiency in food packaging films. Among the investigated catalysts, calcium chloride and lipophilic silica improved the oxygen-scavenging capacity more than sodium chloride and hydrophilic silica. As the catalyst content was increased from 0.1 to 6.0 %(w/w), the oxygen content (%) in the package decreased from 3.90 to 0.36%. Application of oxygen-scavenging films in apple packaging decreased the apple browning index from 52.87 to 38.13 and reduced the oxygen concentration inside the package from 9.8 to 0.0%. Therefore, the food packaging film developed in this study can be used as a food packaging material that removes oxygen and thus prevents food quality deterioration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-024-01520-4.

Application of Natural Functional Additives for Improving Bioactivity and Structure of Biopolymer-Based Films for Food Packaging: A Review

The global trend towards conscious consumption plays an important role in consumer preferences regarding both the composition and quality of food and packaging materials, including sustainable ones. The development of biodegradable active packaging materials could reduce both the negative impact on the environment due to a decrease in the use of oil-based plastics and the amount of synthetic preservatives. This review discusses relevant functional additives for improving the bioactivity of biopolymer-based films. Addition of plant, microbial, animal and organic nanoparticles into bio-based films is discussed. Changes in mechanical, transparency, water and oxygen barrier properties are reviewed. Since microbial and oxidative deterioration are the main causes of food spoilage, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of natural additives are discussed, including perspective ones for the development of biodegradable active packaging.

Recent advances in modified starch based biodegradable food packaging: A review

This study reviews the importance of resistant starch (RS) as the polymer of choice for biodegradable food packaging and highlights the RS types and modification methods for developing RS from native starch (NS). NS is used in packaging because of its vast availability, low cost and film forming capacity. However, application of starch is restricted due to its high moisture sensitivity and hydrophilic nature. The modification of NS into RS improves the film forming characteristics and extends the applications of starch into the formulation of packaging. The starch is blended with other bio-based polymers such as guar, konjac glucomannan, carrageenan, chitosan, xanthan gum and gelatin as well as active ingredients such as nanoparticles (NPs), plant extracts and essential oils to develop hybrid biodegradable packaging with reduced water vapor permeability (WVP), low gas transmission, enhanced antimicrobial activity and mechanical properties. Hybrid RS based active packaging is well known for its better film forming properties, crystalline structures, enhanced tensile strength, water resistance and thermal properties. This review concludes that RS, due to its better film forming ability and stability, can be utilized as polymer of choice in the formulation of biodegradable packaging.

Hybrid green bionanocomposites based on chitosan/starch/gelatin and metallic nanoparticles for biological applications

Multicomponent composites based on natural biopolymers: chitosan, starch and gelatin in two different ratios (0.5:1:1 and 1:1:1) were in situ crosslinked by intermolecular interactions and used as matrices for zinc oxide and magnetite fillers. The bionanocomposite films have been evaluated by spectral and microscopy methods: Fourier-Transform Infrared spectrometry (FT-IR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) confirming the electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interactions between the components of the polymeric matrices and the inorganic fillers and the crosslinking process. AFM and SEM images showed a compact, non-porous and homogenous morphology of the hybrid films, proving a good miscibility of the blends. At lower concentrations of embedded filler, the composites were less hardened and more ductile due to the interaction with the polymeric matrix. Increased amounts of inorganic NPs led to the reduced mechanical properties of the prepared materials and increased thermal stability. The bionanocomposites revealed a similar behavior of the dielectric constant with frequency and increased values at higher temperatures. The wettability of the films' surface and the values of the water sorption capacity revealed a slight hydrophilicity of the bionanocomposites as compared with the initial matrices. The biocompatibility, evaluated by means of the surface free energy components and the interfacial tension with blood, and the hemolysis analysis demonstrated that the bionanocomposites possess a low risk of thrombosis, being promising materials for in vivo biomedical applications.

Evaluation of zinc oxide nanocomposite with Aloe vera gel for packaging of chicken fillet against Salmonella typhi and Salmonella para typhi A

The growing demand for high food quality has been encouraging researchers in the food industry to apply biodegradable nanocomposites, which provide new opportunities and challenges for the advance of nanomaterials in the food industry. The objective of this study was to estimate the antibacterial activity and cytotoxicity effects of zinc oxide nanocomposite/zeolite (c/Zeo) with Aloe vera gel (AG) and its effect on the shelf life of chicken meat. The ZnONPs/Zeo was assessed using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) analyses. The cytotoxicity effect of ZnONPs/Zeo was assessed by MTT assay. Then, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of ZnONPs/Zeo and ZnONPs/Zeo-AG against Salmonella typhi and Salmonella para typhi A were investigated. Also, the preservative effect of nanocomposites on chicken fillets was evaluated. The results showed that these nanocomposites have the least cytotoxicity effect, resulting in good biocompatibility with the host. The MIC and MBC values of ZnONPs/Zeo-AG were lower than the ZnONPs/Zeo against S. typhi and S. paratyphi A. Both ZnONPs/Zeo-AG and ZnONPs/Zeo caused a significant decrease in the bacterial count of the chicken fillets. So, by spraying on meat, the number of bacteria presented a sharper decline as compared with the control group, resulting in an approximately 3.3 and 3-log10 reduction over 48 h in the ZnONPs/Zeo-AG and ZnONPs/Zeo treatment samples, respectively. In conclusion, antimicrobial packaging with ZnONPs containing A. vera is a beneficial solution for preserving and improving the quality, safety, and shelf life of fresh meat products.

Improving the quality of the chicken fillet using chitosan, gelatin, and starch coatings incorporated with bitter orange peel extract during refrigeration

The preserving potential of biopolymer coatings can be improved by adding natural antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of natural coatings (gelatin (Gel), chitosan (Ch), and modified starch (MS)) incorporated with bitter orange peel extract (BOE) on the quality of the chicken fillets during cold. BOE had a high amount of phenolic compounds (145.28 mgGAE/g). Coating the fillets with pure BOE exerted a higher inhibitory effect against bacterial growth compared to composite coatings without extract. Lower microbial count (2-3 log CFU/g on days 9 and 12 of storage) was observed in the samples coated with composite biopolymers incorporated with BOE in comparison to the coatings without BOE. Composite coatings of Gel/MS/BOE showed lower FFA in the fillets followed by Gel/Ch/BOE and MS/Ch/BOE. The lowest TVB-N belonged to MS/Ch/BOE followed by Gel/Ch/BOE and Gel/MS/BOE which were 17.05, 17.39, and 19.40 mg/100 g at the end of the storage. Among the samples, pure BOE, Gel/MS/BOE, Gel/Ch/BOE, and MS/Ch/BOE showed the lowest peroxide value and the coatings containing chitosan had a slower rate of hydroperoxide generation. Drip loss showed a descending trend in all coated samples except for an enhancement in control and BOE-coated fillets, 6.42% and 6.39%, respectively, on day 12 of storage. Samples coated with Gel/MS and Gel/MS/BOE had the lowest drip loss during the storage period (5.96% and 5.98%, respectively). It should be noted that coatings containing chitosan had higher antimicrobial and antioxidant effects. The effect of the coatings as antimicrobial barriers and preservative agents were as follows: Gel/Ch/BOE > MS/Ch/BOE > Gel/MS/BOE. It can be concluded that the applied composite coatings in this work have a high potential to maintain and improve the quality of raw chicken fillets during storage in the refrigerator.

Antimicrobial Drug Resistance in Poultry Production: Current Status and Innovative Strategies for Bacterial Control

The world population’s significant increase has promoted a higher consumption of poultry products, which must meet the specified demand while maintaining their quality and safety. It is well known that conventional antimicrobials (antibiotics) have been used in livestock production, including poultry, as a preventive measure against or for the treatment of infectious bacterial diseases. Unfortunately, the use and misuse of these compounds has led to the development and dissemination of antimicrobial drug resistance, which is currently a serious public health concern. Multidrug-resistant bacteria are on the rise, being responsible for serious infections in humans and animals; hence, the goal of this review is to discuss the consequences of antimicrobial drug resistance in poultry production, focusing on the current status of this agroeconomic sector. Novel bacterial control strategies under investigation for application in this industry are also described. These innovative approaches include antimicrobial peptides, bacteriophages, probiotics and nanoparticles. Challenges related to the application of these methods are also discussed.

High performance biopolymeric packaging films containing zinc oxide nanoparticles for fresh food preservation: A review

Biodegradable food packaging films (FPFs) assembled from sustainable biopolymeric materials are of increasing interest to the food industry due to pollution and health risks resulting from the use of conventional plastic packaging. However, the functional performance of these FPFs is often poorer than that of plastic films, which limits their commercial application. This problem may be partly overcome by incorporating nano-additives like zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZNPs) into the films. The incorporation of ZNPs into FPFs can improve their functional performance. The properties of these films depends on the concentration, dispersion state, and interactions of ZNPs with the biopolymeric matrix in the films. ZNPs-loaded films and coatings are highly effective at preserving a variety of fresh foods. Studies of ZNPs migration through FPFs have shown that the zinc is mainly transported in an ionic form and the amount entering foods is below safety standards. This article reviews recent developments in the design, fabrication, and application of ZNPs-loaded FPFs based on biopolymers, focusing on the impacts of ZNPs on the optical, barrier, mechanical, water sensitivity, and antimicrobial properties of the films. The potential applications of ZNPs-loaded FPFs for fresh food preservation is also discussed.

The use of essential oils in chitosan or cellulose-based materials for the production of active food packaging solutions: a review

In recent decades, interest in sustainable food packaging systems with additional functionality, able to increase the shelf life of products, has grown steadily. Following this trend, the present review analyzes the state of the art of this active renewable packaging. The focus is on antimicrobial systems containing nanocellulose and chitosan, as support for the incorporation of essential oils. These are the most sustainable and readily available options to produce completely natural active packaging materials. After a brief overview of the different active packaging technologies, the main features of nanocellulose, chitosan, and of the different essential oils used in the field of active packaging are introduced and described. The latest findings about the nanocellulose- and chitosan-based active packaging are then presented. The antimicrobial effectiveness of the different solutions is discussed, focusing on their effect on other material properties. The effect of the different inclusion strategies is also reviewed considering both in vivo and in vitro studies, in an attempt to understand more promising solutions and possible pathways for further development. In general, essential oils are very successful in exerting antimicrobial effects against the most diffused gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria, and affecting other material properties (tensile strength, water vapor transmission rate) positively. Due to the wide variety of biopolymer matrices and essential oils available, it is difficult to create general guidelines for the development of active packaging systems. However, more attention should be dedicated to sensory analysis, release kinetics, and synergetic action of different essential oils to optimize the active packaging on different food products. © 2022 The Authors. Journal of The Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Novel pectin-based nanocomposite film for active food packaging applications

Novel pectin-based films reinforced with crystalline nanocellulose (CNC) and activated with zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were prepared by solvent-casting method. Film ingredients enhanced UV-blocking, thermal, and antibacterial properties of active films against well-known foodborne pathogens. Optimal active films exhibited higher mechanical, water vapor barrier properties compared to pristine pectin films. SEM confirmed the even distribution of CNC and ZnO NPs in pectin matrix and their interactions were proven using FTIR. Wrapping hard cheese samples artificially contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enterica with the ternary nanocomposite film at 7 °C for 5 days significantly reduced the total population counts by at least 1.02 log CFU/g. Zn2+ migrating to wrapped cheese samples was below the specific limit (5 mg/kg), confirming their safety for food contact. Overall, ZnO/CNC/pectin nanocomposite films represent promising candidates for active food packaging as safe, eco-friendly alternatives for synthetic packaging materials.

Histological Evaluation of Cassava Starch/Chicken Gelatin Membranes

The use of biopolymers for tissue engineering has recently gained attention due to the need for safer and highly compatible materials. Starch is one of the most used biopolymers for membrane preparation. However, incorporating other polymers into starch membranes introduces improvements, such as better thermal and mechanical resistance and increased water affinity, as we reported in our previous work. There are few reports in the literature on the biocompatibility of starch/chicken gelatin composites. We assessed the in vivo biocompatibility of the five composites (T1–T5) cassava starch/gelatin membranes with subdermal implantations in biomodels at 30, 60, and 90 days. The FT-IR spectroscopy analysis demonstrated the main functional groups for starch and chicken gelatin. At the same time, the thermal study exhibited an increase in thermal resistance for T3 and T4, with a remaining mass (~15 wt.%) at 800 °C. The microstructure analysis for the T2–T4 demonstrated evident roughness changes with porosity presence due to starch and gelatin mixture. The decrease in the starch content in the composites also decreased the gelatinization heats for T3 and T4 (195.67, 196.40 J/g, respectively). Finally, the implantation results demonstrated that the formulations exhibited differences in the degradation and resorption capacities according to the starch content, which is easily degraded by amylases. However, the histological results showed that the samples demonstrated almost complete reabsorption without a severe immune response, indicating a high in vivo biocompatibility. These results show that the cassava starch/chicken gelatin composites are promising membrane materials for tissue engineering applications.

Comparison of Two Bovine Commercial Xenografts in the Regeneration of Critical Cranial Defects

Autologous bone is the gold standard in regeneration processes. However, there is an endless search for alternative materials in bone regeneration. Xenografts can act as bone substitutes given the difficulty of obtaining bone tissue from patients and before the limitations in the availability of homologous tissue donors. Bone neoformation was studied in critical-size defects created in the parietal bone of 40 adult male Wistar rats, implanted with xenografts composed of particulate bovine hydroxyapatite (HA) and with blocks of bovine hydroxyapatite (HA) and Collagen, which introduces crystallinity to the materials. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis demonstrated the carbonate and phosphate groups of the hydroxyapatite and the amide groups of the collagen structure, while the thermal transitions for HA and HA/collagen composites established mainly dehydration endothermal processes, which increased (from 79 °C to 83 °C) for F2 due to the collagen presence. The xenograft's X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) analysis also revealed the bovine HA crystalline structure, with a prominent peak centered at 32°. We observed macroporosity and mesoporosity in the xenografts from the morphology studies with heterogeneous distribution. The two xenografts induced neoformation in defects of critical size. Histological, histochemical, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses were performed 30, 60, and 90 days after implantation. The empty defects showed signs of neoformation lower than 30% in the three periods, while the defects implanted with the material showed partial regeneration. InterOss Collagen material temporarily induced osteon formation during the healing process. The results presented here are promising for bone regeneration, demonstrating a beneficial impact in the biomedical field.

The Emergence of Edible and Food-Application Coatings for Food Packaging: A Review

Food packaging was not as important in the past as it is now, because the world has more people but fewer food resources. Food packaging will become more prevalent and go from being a nice-to-have to an essential feature of modern life. Food packaging has grown to be an important industry sector in today's world of more people and more food. Food packaging innovation faces significant challenges in extending perishable food products' shelf life and contributing to meeting daily nutrient requirements as people nowadays are searching for foods that offer additional health advantages. Modern food preservation techniques have two objectives: process viability and safe, environmentally friendly end products. Long-term storage techniques can include the use of edible coatings and films. This article gives a succinct overview of the supplies and procedures used to coat food products with conventional packaging films and coatings. The key findings summarizing the biodegradable packaging materials are emphasized for their ability to prolong the freshness and flavor of a wide range of food items; films and edible coatings are highlighted as viable alternatives to traditional packaging methods. We discuss the safety concerns and opportunities presented by applying edible films and coatings, allowing it to be used as quality indicators for time-sensitive foods.

Biocompatibility Assessment of Two Commercial Bone Xenografts by In Vitro and In Vivo Methods

Bone substitutes based on xenografts have been used for a long time in bone regeneration thanks to their inductive capacity for bone tissue regeneration. Some bone-based scaffolds have been modified by adding collagen and other proteins to improve their regenerative capacity and prevent migration and aggregation, especially particles. However, rejection of this graft has been reported due to protein residues caused by poor material preparation. We compared the in vitro and in vivo biological response of two commercial xenografts (InterOss^®, F1 and InterOss^® Collagen, F2) and a commercial porcine collagen membrane (InterCollagen^® Guide, F3) as a rapid degradation control. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis evidenced the presence of hydroxyl, orthophosphate, and carbonate groups of the xenografts and amide groups of collagen. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of the xenografts demonstrated their thermal stability and the presence of a few amounts of organic material. The study by differential scanning calorimetry showed the presence of endothermic peaks typical of the dehydration of the xenografts (F1 and F2) and for the collagen membrane (F3), the beginning of structural three-dimensional protein changes. Subsequently, in vitro biocompatibility tests were carried out for the materials with Artemia salina and MTT cell viability with HeLa cells, demonstrating the high biocompatibility of the materials. Finally, in vivo biocompatibility was studied by implanting xenografts in biomodels (Wistar rats) at different periods (30, 60, and 90 days). The F1 xenograft (InterOss) remained remarkably stable throughout the experiment (90 days). F2 (InterOss Collagen) presented a separation of its apatite and collagen components at 60 days and advanced resorption at 90 days of implantation. Finally, the collagen membrane (F3) presented faster resorption since, at 90 days, only some tiny fragments of the material were evident. All the in vivo and in vitro test results demonstrated the biocompatibility of the xenografts, demonstrating the potential of these materials for tissue engineering.

The Optimization of Gelatin Extraction from Chicken Feet and the Development of Gelatin Based Active Packaging for the Shelf-Life Extension of Fresh Grapes

Synthetic plastics are causing serious environmental and health problems due to which the concept of developing biodegradable food packaging has gained considerable attention. In this study, extraction of gelatin from chicken feet was optimized followed by characterization of gelatin. Chicken feet gelatin was used to develop biodegradable nanocomposite films by the incorporation of chitosan (CS) and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs). Gelatin nanocomposite films were used to increase the shelf-life of fresh grapes by determining the browning index, weight loss, and microbial profile of fresh grapes. A high yield (7.5%) of gelatin and Bloom strength (186 g) were obtained at optimized extraction conditions (pretreatment with 4.2% acetic acid and extraction at 66 °C for 4.2 h). Electrophoretic analysis of gelatin revealed the presence of α (130–140 kDa) and β chains (195–200 kDa), whereas a Fourier transformed infrared (FTIR) spectrometer confirmed the presence of amide A and B and amide I, II, and III. Incorporation of ZnO NPs in a gelatin–CS matrix improved the barrier and the mechanical and the thermal properties of films. Gelatin nanocomposite films with 0.3% ZnO NPs significantly reduced the weight loss (23.88%) and the browning index (53.33%) of grapes in comparison to control treatments. The microbial count in artificially inoculated grapes wrapped in gelatin nanocomposite films remained below 4 log CFU/mL until the fifth storage day in comparison to control treatments. The gelatin from poultry byproducts such as chicken feet can serve as an efficient biopolymer to develop biodegradable food packaging to enhance the shelf-life of perishable food products.

Recent development in antibacterial activity and application of nanozymes in food preservation

Nanozymes with excellent broad-spectrum antibacterial properties offers an alternative strategy for food preservation. This review comprehensively summarized the antibacterial mechanisms of nanozymes, including the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the destruction of biofilms. Besides, the primary factors (size, morphology, hybridization, light, etc.) regulating the antibacterial activity of different types of nanozymes were highlighted in detail, which provided effective guidance on how to design highly efficient antibacterial nanozymes. Moreover, this review presented elaborated viewpoints on the unique applications of nanozymes in food preservation, including the selection of nanozymes loading matrix, fabrication techniques of nanozymes-based antibacterial films/coatings, and the recent advances in the application of nanozymes-based antibacterial films/coatings in food preservation. In the end, the safety issues of nanozymes have also been mentioned. Overall, this review provided new avenues in the field of food preservation and displayed great prospects.

The safety of nanomaterials in food production and packaging

Nanotechnology involves developing, characterising, and applying structures ranging in size from 1 to 100 nm. As a key advanced technology, it has contributed to a substantial impact across engineering, medicine, agriculture and food. With regards to their application in food, nanomaterials posses the ability to lead the quantitative and qualitative development of high-quality, healthier, and safer foods by outperforming traditional food processing technologies for increasing shelf life and preventing contaminations. Although rapid progress has been made in nanotechnology in food products, the toxicity of nanoparticles and nanomaterials is not very well known. As a result, nanomaterials are potentially toxic, therefore, considering the constantly increasing employment in food science, they need to be further characterised, and their use must be better regulated. We may face a crisis of nanotoxicity if the molecular mechanisms by which nanoparticles and nanomaterials interact with food and within living organisms is not fully understood. Food safety can be guaranteed only if we are thoroughly aware of nanomaterial properties and potential toxicity. Therefore, it is urgently necessary to have in the food sector a regulatory system capable of managing nanofood risks and nanotechnology, considering the health effects of food processing techniques based on nanotechnology. This present review discusses the impact and role nanotechnology play in food science. The specific application of Nanomaterials in food science, their advantages and disadvantages, the potential risk for human health and the analysis to detect nanocomponents are also highlighted.

Synthesis, Characterization, and Optimization Studies of Starch/Chicken Gelatin Composites for Food-Packaging Applications

The indiscriminate use of plastic in food packaging contributes significantly to environmental pollution, promoting the search for more eco-friendly alternatives for the food industry. This work studied five formulations (T1–T5) of biodegradable cassava starch/gelatin films. The results showed the presence of the starch/gelatin functional groups by FT-IR spectroscopy. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) showed a thermal reinforcement after increasing the amount of gelatin in the formulations, which increased the crystallization temperature (Tc) from 190 °C for the starch-only film (T1) to 206 °C for the film with 50/50 starch/gelatin (T3). It also exhibited a homogeneous surface morphology, as evidenced by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). However, an excess of gelatin showed low compatibility with starch in the 25/75 starch/gelatin film (T4), evidenced by the low Tc definition and very rough and fractured surface morphology. Increasing gelatin ratio also significantly increased the strain (from 2.9 ± 0.5% for T1 to 285.1 ± 10.0% for T5) while decreasing the tensile strength (from 14.6 ± 0.5 MPa for T1 to 1.5 ± 0.3 MPa for T5). Water vapor permeability (WVP) increased, and water solubility (WS) also decreased with gelatin mass rising in the composites. On the other hand, opacity did not vary significantly due to the films’ cassava starch and gelatin ratio. Finally, optimizing the mechanical and water barrier properties resulted in a mass ratio of 53/47 cassava starch/gelatin as the most appropriate for their application in food packaging, indicating their usefulness in the food-packaging industry.

Effects of zinc dosage and particle size on gut morphology, tight junctions and TNF-α expression in broiler breeder hens

This study was performed to evaluate the effects of different amounts and particle size of zinc oxide (ZnO) on villus height (VH), villus width (VW), crypt depth (CD) and VH to CD ratio (VH: CD), and expression of zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), occludin (OC) and tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in broiler breeders. A total of 350 (Ross 308) broiler breeder hens of 54 weeks randomly assigned to seven treatments, included control basal diet (C) without added Zn, C+ 100, and 130 mg Zn per kg of diet from Large (L) (100-1000 nm) and Small (S) (<100 nm) particle size ZnO (LZnO100 and 130; SZnO100 and 130), C and SZnO100 challenged with lipopolysaccharide (C+LPS and SZnO100+LPS). Each diet was fed to five replicates consisting of ten birds each. The middle part of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum was used for morphological assessments. To assess the gene expression of ZO-1, OC and TNF-α in the jejunum samples were excised. Results showed that the supplementing 130 ppm SZnO increased VH:CD in the duodenum (p < 0.05). VW in the duodenum and all the evaluated morphometric indices in jejunum and ileum were not affected by the dietary treatment (p > 0.05). ZO-1 mRNA abundance in C+LPS group compared to SZnO100+LPS group was significantly decreased and increased by LPS and SZnO100 respectively. The SZnO-100 increased OC gene expression in compare to C+LPS group. The expression of TNF-α in C+LPS treatment was higher than other groups (p < 0.05). The lowest and the highest litter moisture and foot-pad dermatitis (FPD) were observed in LZnO-130 and C treatments respectively (p < 0.05). Improving the physical properties of ZnO affect on VH:CD. Broiler breeder diet with ZnO enhance ZO-1, OC and mitigate TNF-α gene expression in jejunum maintenance of gut health in broiler breeders.

Antibacterial Potential of Biosynthesized Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles against Poultry-Associated Foodborne Pathogens: An In Vitro Study

Simple Summary

The overuse of antibiotics in the poultry industry has led to the emergence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Thus, there is a need to find an alternative to conventional antibiotics. Recently, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have gained much attention due to their excellent antibacterial activity. In addition, ZnO NPs is an essential trace mineral in poultry diets. In this sense, incorporating ZnO NPs into poultry can promote growth and performance while serving as an alternative antibacterial agent to control diseases. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the in vitro antibacterial activity and antibacterial mechanisms of ZnO NPs against poultry-associated foodborne pathogens (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus). The obtained findings demonstrated effective antibacterial actions against the tested microorganisms. The nanotechnology approach could represent a new tool for combating pathogens in the poultry industry.

Abstract

Since the emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria in the poultry industry is currently a serious threat, there is an urgent need to develop a more efficient and alternative antibacterial substance. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have exhibited antibacterial efficacy against a wide range of microorganisms. Although the in vitro antibacterial activity of ZnO NPs has been studied, little is known about the antibacterial mechanisms of ZnO NPs against poultry-associated foodborne pathogens. In the present study, ZnO NPs were successfully synthesized using Lactobacillus plantarum TA4, characterized, and their antibacterial potential against common avian pathogens (Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus) was investigated. Confirmation of ZnO NPs by UV-Visual spectroscopy showed an absorption band center at 360 nm. Morphologically, the synthesized ZnO NPs were oval with an average particle size of 29.7 nm. Based on the dissolution study of Zn²⁺, ZnO NPs released more ions than their bulk counterparts. Results from the agar well diffusion assay indicated that ZnO NPs effectively inhibited the growth of the three poultry-associated foodborne pathogens. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) were assessed using various concentrations of ZnO NPs, which resulted in excellent antibacterial activity as compared to their bulkier counterparts. S. aureus was more susceptible to ZnO NPs compared to the other tested bacteria. Furthermore, the ZnO NPs demonstrated substantial biofilm inhibition and eradication. The formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cellular material leakage was quantified to determine the underlying antibacterial mechanisms, whereas a scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to examine the morphological changes of tested bacteria treated with ZnO NPs. The findings suggested that ROS-induced oxidative stress caused membrane damage and bacterial cell death. Overall, the results demonstrated that ZnO NPs could be developed as an alternative antibiotic in poultry production and revealed new possibilities in combating pathogenic microorganisms.

(Bio)nanotechnology in Food Science-Food Packaging

Background: Bionanotechnology, as a tool for incorporation of biological molecules into nanoartifacts, is gaining more and more importance in the field of food packaging. It offers an advanced expectation of food packaging that can ensure longer shelf life of products and safer packaging with improved food quality and traceability. Scope and approach: This review recent focuses on advances in food nanopackaging, including bio-based, improved, active, and smart packaging. Special emphasis is placed on bio-based packaging, including biodegradable packaging and biocompatible packaging, which presents an alternative to most commonly used non-degradable polymer materials. Safety and environmental concerns of (bio)nanotechnology implementation in food packaging were also discussed including new EU directives. Conclusions: The use of nanoparticles and nanocomposites in food packaging increases the mechanical strength and properties of the water and oxygen barrier of packaging and may provide other benefits such as antimicrobial activity and light-blocking properties. Concerns about the migration of nanoparticles from packaging to food have been expressed, but migration tests and risk assessment are unclear. Presumed toxicity, lack of additional data from clinical trials and risk assessment studies limit the use of nanomaterials in the food packaging sector. Therefore, an assessment of benefits and risks must be defined.